ABSTRACT Giant clumps are a characteristic feature of observed high-redshift disk galaxies. We propose that these kiloparsec-sized clumps have a complex substructure and are the result of many ...smaller clumps self-organizing themselves into clump clusters (CCs). This bottom-up scenario is in contrast to the common top-down view that these giant clumps form first and then sub-fragment. Using a high-resolution hydrodynamical simulation of an isolated, fragmented massive gas disk and mimicking the observations from Genzel et al. at z ∼ 2, we find remarkable agreement in many details. The CCs appear as single entities of sizes 0.9-1.4 kpc and masses ∼(1.5-3) , representative of high-z observations. They are organized in a ring around the center of the galaxy. The origin of the observed clumps' high intrinsic velocity dispersion 50-100 is fully explained by the internal irregular motions of their substructure in our simulation. No additional energy input, e.g., via stellar feedback, is necessary. Furthermore, in agreement with observations, we find a small velocity gradient 8-27 along the CCs in the beam-smeared velocity residual maps, which corresponds to net prograde and retrograde rotation with respect to the rotation of the galactic disk. The CC scenario could have strong implications for the internal evolution, lifetimes, and the migration timescales of the observed giant clumps, bulge growth, and active galactic nucleus activity, stellar feedback, and the chemical enrichment history of galactic disks.
ABSTRACT
We investigate the contribution of clumps and satellites to the galaxy mass assembly. We analysed spatially resolved HubbleSpace Telescope observations (imaging and slitless spectroscopy) of ...53 star-forming galaxies at z ∼ 1–3. We created continuum and emission line maps and pinpointed residual ‘blobs’ detected after subtracting the galaxy disc. Those were separated into compact (unresolved) and extended (resolved) components. Extended components have sizes ∼2 kpc and comparable stellar mass and age as the galaxy discs, whereas the compact components are 1.5 dex less massive and 0.4 dex younger than the discs. Furthermore, the extended blobs are typically found at larger distances from the galaxy barycentre than the compact ones. Prompted by these observations and by the comparison with simulations, we suggest that compact blobs are in situ formed clumps, whereas the extended ones are accreting satellites. Clumps and satellites enclose, respectively, ∼20 per cent and ≲80 per cent of the galaxy stellar mass, ∼30 per cent and ∼20 per cent of its star formation rate. Considering the compact blobs, we statistically estimated that massive clumps (M⋆ ≳ 109 M⊙) have lifetimes of ∼650 Myr, and the less massive ones (108 < M⋆ < 109 M⊙) of ∼145 Myr. This supports simulations predicting long-lived clumps (lifetime ≳ 100 Myr). Finally, ≲30 per cent (13 per cent) of our sample galaxies are undergoing single (multiple) merger(s), they have a projected separation ≲10 kpc, and the typical mass ratio of our satellites is 1:5 (but ranges between 1:10 and 1:1), in agreement with literature results for close pair galaxies.
Time- and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy with 13 fs temporal resolution is used to follow the different stages in the formation of a Fermi-Dirac distributed electron gas in graphite after ...absorption of an intense 7 fs laser pulse. Within the first 50 fs after excitation, a sequence of time frames is resolved that are characterized by different energy and momentum exchange processes among the involved photonic, electronic, and phononic degrees of freedom. The results reveal experimentally the complexity of the transition from a nascent nonthermal towards a thermal electron distribution due to the different timescales associated with the involved interaction processes.
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ABSTRACT
Giant clumps on ∼kpc scales and with masses of $10^8\rm {-}10^9 \, \mathrm{M_{\odot }}$ are ubiquitous in observed high-redshift disc galaxies. Recent simulations and observations with high ...spatial resolution indicate the existence of substructure within these clumps. We perform high-resolution simulations of a massive galaxy to study the substructure formation within the framework of gravitational disc instability. We focus on an isolated and pure gas disc with an isothermal equation of state with T = 104 K that allows capturing the effects of self-gravity and hydrodynamics robustly. The main mass of the galaxy resides in rotationally supported clumps which grow by merging to a maximum clump mass of $10^8 \, \mathrm{M_{\odot }}$ with diameter ∼120 pc for the dense gas. They group to clump clusters (CCs) within relatively short times ($\ll 50 \, \mathrm{Myr}$), which are present over the whole simulation time. We identify several mass and size scales on which the clusters appear as single objects at the corresponding observational resolution between ${\sim } 10^8 \,\rm{and}\, 10^9 \, \mathrm{M_{\odot }}$. Most of the clusters emerge as dense groups and for larger beams they are more likely to be open structures represented by a single object. In the high-resolution runs higher densities can be reached, and the initial structures can collapse further and fragment to many clumps smaller than the initial Toomre length. In our low-resolution runs, the clumps directly form on larger scales 0.3–1 kpc with $10^8\rm {-}10^9 \, \mathrm{M_{\odot }}$. Here, the artificial pressure floor which is typically used to prevent spurious fragmentation strongly influences the initial formation of clumps and their properties at very low densities.
Gravitational instabilities play an important role in structure formation of gas-rich high-redshift disc galaxies. In this paper, we revisit the axisymmetric perturbation theory and the resulting ...growth of structure by taking the realistic thickness of the disc into account. In the unstable regime, which corresponds for thick discs to a Toomre parameter below the critical value Q
0, crit = 0.696, we find a fastest growing perturbation wavelength that is always a factor 1.93 times larger than in the classical razor-thin disc approximation. This result is independent of the adopted disc scaleheight and by this independent of temperature and surface density. In order to test the analytical theory, we compare it with a high-resolution hydrodynamical simulation of an isothermal gravitationally unstable gas disc with the typical vertical sech2 density profile and study its break up into rings that subsequently fragment into dense clumps. In the first phase, rings form, that organize themselves discretely, with distances corresponding to the local fastest growing perturbation wavelength. We find that the disc scaleheight has to be resolved initially with five or more grid cells in order to guarantee proper growth of the ring structures, which follow the analytical prediction. These rings later on contract to a thin and dense line, while at the same time accreting more gas from the inter-ring region. It is these dense, circular filaments, that subsequently fragment into a large number of clumps. Contrary to what is typically assumed, the clump sizes are therefore not directly determined by the fastest growing wavelength.
A series of strontium orthotitanate (Sr2TiO4) samples doped with 2% of a mole of europium, praseodymium, and erbium were obtained using the solid-state synthesis method. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) ...technique confirms the phase purity of all samples and the lack of the influence of dopants at a given concentration on the structure of materials. The optical properties indicate, in the case of Sr2TiO4:Eu3+, two independent emission (PL) and excitation (PLE) spectra attributed to the Eu3+ ions at sites with different symmetries: low – excited at 360 nm and high – excited at 325 nm, while, for Sr2TiO4:Er3+ and Sr2TiO4:Pr3+, the emission spectra do not depend on the excitation wavelength. The measurements of X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) indicate the presence of only one type of charge compensation mechanism, which is based on the creation of strontium vacancies Formula Omitted in all cases. This suggests that the different charge compensation mechanisms cannot easily explain the presence of Eu3+ at two non-equivalent crystal sites. The photocurrent excitation (PCE) spectroscopy investigations, that have not been reported in the literature so far, show that among all the studied dopants, only Pr3+ can promote the electrons to the conduction band and give rise to electron conductivity. The results collected from the PLE and PCE spectra allowed us to find the location of the ground states of lanthanides(ii)/(iii) in the studied matrix.
In this contribution, an extensive spectroscopic study of Y
2
O
2
S doped with Eu
3+
and Tb
3+
is presented. Steady-state luminescence and luminescence excitation spectra as well as the time-resolved ...spectra and luminescence kinetics were obtained at high hydrostatic pressures up to 240 kbar. It was found that pressure quenches the luminescence from the
5
D
3
excited state of Tb
3+
and recovers additional luminescence related to transitions from the
5
D
3
state of Eu
3+
. These effects are related to the pressure-induced increases in the energies of the ground electronic manifold 4f
n
of Eu
3+
and Tb
3+
ions with respect to the band edges. Analysis of the emission and excitation spectra allowed the estimation of the energies of the ground states of all lanthanide (Ln) ions (Ln
3+
and Ln
2+
) with respect to the valence and conduction bands edges of the Y
2
O
2
S host. The bandgap energy and difference between energies of the ground states of Ln
2+
and Ln
3+
have been calculated as functions of pressure. The experimental high-pressure spectroscopy results allow the calculation of the absolute values (calculated with respect to the vacuum level) of the energies and pressure-induced shifts of the conduction and valence band edges and the ground states of Ln
3+
and Ln
2+
ions in Y
2
O
2
S.
In this contribution, an extensive spectroscopic study of Y
2
O
2
S doped with Eu
3+
and Tb
3+
is presented.
A series of strontium orthotitanate (Sr
TiO
) samples doped with 2% of a mole of europium, praseodymium, and erbium were obtained using the solid-state synthesis method. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) ...technique confirms the phase purity of all samples and the lack of the influence of dopants at a given concentration on the structure of materials. The optical properties indicate, in the case of Sr
TiO
:Eu
, two independent emission (PL) and excitation (PLE) spectra attributed to the Eu
ions at sites with different symmetries: low - excited at 360 nm and high - excited at 325 nm, while, for Sr
TiO
:Er
and Sr
TiO
:Pr
, the emission spectra do not depend on the excitation wavelength. The measurements of X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) indicate the presence of only one type of charge compensation mechanism, which is based on the creation of strontium vacancies in all cases. This suggests that the different charge compensation mechanisms cannot easily explain the presence of Eu
at two non-equivalent crystal sites. The photocurrent excitation (PCE) spectroscopy investigations, that have not been reported in the literature so far, show that among all the studied dopants, only Pr
can promote the electrons to the conduction band and give rise to electron conductivity. The results collected from the PLE and PCE spectra allowed us to find the location of the ground states of lanthanides(II)/(III) in the studied matrix.
ABSTRACT
Giant star-forming regions (clumps) are widespread features of galaxies at z ≈ 1−4. Theory predicts that they can play a crucial role in galaxy evolution, if they survive to stellar feedback ...for >50 Myr. Numerical simulations show that clumps’ survival depends on the stellar feedback recipes that are adopted. Up to date, observational constraints on both clumps’ outflows strength and gas removal time-scale are still uncertain. In this context, we study a line-emitting galaxy at redshift z ≃ 3.4 lensed by the foreground galaxy cluster Abell 2895. Four compact clumps with sizes ≲280 pc and representative of the low-mass end of clumps’ mass distribution (stellar masses ≲2 × 108 M⊙) dominate the galaxy morphology. The clumps are likely forming stars in a starbursting mode and have a young stellar population (∼10 Myr). The properties of the Lyman-α (Lyα) emission and nebular far-ultraviolet absorption lines indicate the presence of ejected material with global outflowing velocities of ∼200–300 km s−1. Assuming that the detected outflows are the consequence of star formation feedback, we infer an average mass loading factor (η) for the clumps of ∼1.8–2.4 consistent with results obtained from hydrodynamical simulations of clumpy galaxies that assume relatively strong stellar feedback. Assuming no gas inflows (semiclosed box model), the estimates of η suggest that the time-scale over which the outflows expel the molecular gas reservoir (≃7 × 108 M⊙) of the four detected low-mass clumps is ≲50 Myr.
In this contribution, an extensive spectroscopic study of Y2O2S doped with Eu(3+) and Tb(3+) is presented. Steady-state luminescence and luminescence excitation spectra as well as the time-resolved ...spectra and luminescence kinetics were obtained at high hydrostatic pressures up to 240 kbar. It was found that pressure quenches the luminescence from the (5)D3 excited state of Tb(3+) and recovers additional luminescence related to transitions from the (5)D3 state of Eu(3+). These effects are related to the pressure-induced increases in the energies of the ground electronic manifold 4f(n) of Eu(3+) and Tb(3+) ions with respect to the band edges. Analysis of the emission and excitation spectra allowed the estimation of the energies of the ground states of all lanthanide (Ln) ions (Ln(3+) and Ln(2+)) with respect to the valence and conduction bands edges of the Y2O2S host. The bandgap energy and difference between energies of the ground states of Ln(2+) and Ln(3+) have been calculated as functions of pressure. The experimental high-pressure spectroscopy results allow the calculation of the absolute values (calculated with respect to the vacuum level) of the energies and pressure-induced shifts of the conduction and valence band edges and the ground states of Ln(3+) and Ln(2+) ions in Y2O2S.
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