Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure during the perinatal and postnatal periods increases the susceptibility to disease over the life cycle. However, information on the BPA delivered to fetuses or infants via ...the placenta and breastfeeding is limited. We determined the BPA exposure levels in various bodily fluids and tissues of pregnant women and described fetus and infant exposures to BPA based on associations and BPA ratios in mother–neonate paired samples. Maternal serum, urine, placenta, breast milk, cord serum, and neonatal urine samples were collected from 318 mother–neonate pairs at six university hospitals in Korea. BPA levels were detected using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The ratios of the BPA levels in the other sample types to the levels in maternal serum were calculated. BPA was detected in 79.5–100% of the maternal and fetal samples. The median BPA concentration in the samples decreased in the order of neonatal urine (4.75ng/mL), maternal urine (2.86ng/mL), cord serum (1.71ng/mL), maternal serum (1.56ng/mL), breast milk (0.74ng/mL), and the placenta (0.53ng/g). We estimated the ratios of BPA levels in the other sample types to those in maternal serum. The median (95th percentile) cord serum-to-maternal serum ratio was 1.12 (15.2) for 160 mother–fetal pairs, in which BPA was detected in both samples. The placenta-, maternal urine-, neonatal urine-, and breast milk-to-maternal serum ratios were 0.28 (5.31), 1.79 (29.9), 1.98 (28.2), and 0.51 (10.5), respectively. In addition, the median (95th percentile) cord serum-to-placenta ratio was 4.03 (45.8), and the neonatal urine-to-cord serum ratio was 1.95 (25.6). The 95th percentile values were 14–20-fold greater than the medians. Urine contained the highest BPA concentrations, followed by serum, breast milk, and the placenta. The variations of BPA ratio show individual differences in the amounts of BPA delivered from mother to fetus.
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•Not enough data on tissue distribution of BPA in mother‑neonate (or fetus) pair•The order of BPA concentrations in examined tissue or bio-samples are urine in mother and neonates>cord serum>maternal serum>breast milk>placenta.•BPA in cord serum, significantly associated with in maternal serum and urine but not in others.•The variations of BPA ratio show individual differences in the amounts of BPA delivered from mother to fetus.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
•PFOS, PFOA, PFUnDA, and PFNA were the predominant compounds in breast milk.•Concentrations of PFASs were significantly correlated with maternal age, BMI, and parity.•Increased levels of PFASs were ...found in breast milk after the first month of nursing.•Snack consumption and frequency of eating-out were significantly associated with increased PFAS levels.•The infant exposure levels of PFOS and PFOA via breast milk were lower than the TDI.
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Breastfeeding is an important exposure pathway to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) for newborn infants. Nevertheless, reports are limited on the occurrence and time-course of PFASs in breast milk, and most studies have focused on the analysis of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). In this study, 16 PFASs were analyzed in breast milk samples (n=293) collected from 128 mothers in Korea during various lactation periods to assess maternal exposure levels, contamination profiles, time-course variations, and infant health risks. The total concentrations of PFASs (ΣPFAS) ranged from 31.7 to 1004 (median: 188) ng/L, which was within the ranges recently reported for Asian and European populations. After a month of nursing, the concentrations of PFOS, PFOA, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), and ΣPFAS significantly increased. This could be due to changes in the dietary and behavior patterns of the mothers after the first month of lactation. The concentrations of PFOS and PFOA were significantly correlated with maternal age, body mass index, and parity. Certain types of diet (e.g. consuming snacks and milk) and eating-out frequency were significantly associated with increasing levels of PFAS. Significant correlations and similar time-course trends were found between PFASs and PCBs/DDTs, implying similar exposure sources and biokinetics for these contaminants. The estimated daily intakes of PFOS and PFOA via the consumption of breast milk were below the tolerable daily intakes for infants suggested by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
Current knowledge on adverse endocrine disruption effects of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) among newborn infants is limited and often controversial. To investigate the associations between ...prenatal exposure to major POPs and thyroid hormone levels among newborn infants, both cord serum or maternal serum concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were compared with five thyroid hormones in cord serum of newborn infants as well as TSH in bloodspot collected at 2 day after birth (n=104). Since cord serum thyroid hormones could be affected by those of mothers, thyroid hormone concentrations of the matching mothers at delivery were adjusted. In cord serum, BDE-47, -99, and Σchlordane (CHD) showed significant positive associations with cord or bloodspot TSH. At the same time, p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) and hexachlorbenzene (HCB) showed negative associations with total T3 and total T4 in cord serum, respectively. Maternal exposure to β-hexachlorhexane (β-HCH), ΣCHD, ΣDDT, or p,p'-DDE were also associated with neonatal thyroid hormones. Although the sample size is small and the thyroid hormone levels of the subjects were within the reference range, our observation supports thyroid disrupting potential of several POPs among newborn infants, at the levels occurring in the general population. Considering the importance of thyroid hormones during gestation and early life stages, health implication of thyroid hormone effects by low level POPs exposure deserves further follow up investigations.
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DOBA, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
Persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are of global concern because of their widespread ...contamination and adverse health effects. Potential endocrine disruption, especially of thyroid status by PCBs has been repeatedly suggested in both experimental and epidemiological studies. However the associations with PBDEs or OCPs have been arguable especially in human populations. We investigated the associations between major groups of POPs and thyroid hormone balances among pregnant women. One hundred five pregnant women at delivery were recruited from four cities of Korea in 2011 and were investigated. Blood samples were collected within a day before delivery. Serum was then analyzed for 19 PCBs, 19 PBDEs, and 19 OCPs, along with five thyroid hormones (free and total T3 and T4, and TSH). Several PCBs such as PCB28, 52, and 118 showed negative associations with T3 or T4. BDE47 and total PBDEs showed significant associations with T3 or T4. For OCPs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were generally associated with reduction of T3 or T4. The thyroid hormone levels of all subjects were within the reference range, however exposure to several target POPs were clearly related with potential for disrupting thyroid hormone balance among pregnant women, at the current level of exposure. Although subtle, the changes in thyroid hormones should be seen with caution because even minor changes within pregnant women may have significant consequences especially on sensitive population like fetus.
•Associations between POPs and thyroid hormone levels were examined in pregnant women.•Several PCBs and OCPs are significantly associated with T3 or T4 levels.•PBDEs showed thyroid disrupting potential, but the directions were inconsistent.•Implications of POPs exposure on fetus during gestation deserve further investigation.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
Fetal growth restriction (FGR) is one of the leading causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality. Many studies have reported an association between FGR and fetal Doppler indices focusing on umbilical ...artery (UA), middle cerebral artery (MCA), and ductus venosus (DV). The uteroplacental-fetal circulation which affects the fetal growth consists of not only UA, MCA, and DV, but also umbilical vein (UV), placenta and uterus itself. Nevertheless, there is a paucity of large-scale cohort studies that have assessed the association between UV, uterine wall, and placental thickness with perinatal outcomes in FGR, in conjunction with all components of the uteroplacental-fetal circulation. Therefore, this multicenter study will evaluate the association among UV absolute flow, placental thickness, and uterine wall thickness and adverse perinatal outcome in FGR fetuses. This multicenter retrospective cohort study will include singleton pregnant women who undergo at least one routine fetal ultrasound scan during routine antepartum care. Pregnant women with fetuses having structural or chromosomal abnormalities will be excluded. The U-AID indices (UtA, UA, MCA, and UV flow, placental and uterine wall thickness, and estimated fetal body weight) will be measured during each trimester of pregnancy. The study population will be divided into two groups: (1) FGR group (pregnant women with FGR fetuses) and (2) control group (those with normal growth fetus). We will assess the association between U-AID indices and adverse perinatal outcomes in the FGR group and the difference in U-AID indices between the two groups.
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DOBA, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
Mercury and lead are naturally occurring toxicants and are responsible for various health issues including neurobehavioral and developmental disorders. Because of crucial synchronized developmental ...processes occurring at the early stage of life, infancy and childhood are considered as among the most susceptible windows to the exposure to these metals. Breastmilk is often the only source of nutrition during the first months of life. As breastmilk can be contaminated with these metals, breastfeeding may serve as a significant route of heavy metal exposure among infants. In order to understand current levels of exposure to mercury and lead through breastfeeding, and their associated risks, a total of 157 lactating mothers were recruited from Children's Health and Environmental Chemicals of Korea (CHECK) cohort, and breastmilk samples were collected at 15 and 30days after delivery (n=207). Mercury was detected from 100% of breastmilk with a median concentration of 0.59μg/L, and lead was detected in 77% of the samples with a median at 4.71μg/L. Higher concentrations of lead were found in the 30- day breastmilk than in the 15-day. Up to 45% of the breastmilk samples exceeded the normal range of the breastmilk lead suggested by WHO. Based on Monte Carlo simulation, about 71% of 15days old infants and 56% of 30days old infants were estimated at risk due to lead exposure through breastfeeding. Considering vulnerability of infants and well-known neurological toxicity of these metals, further studies to identify major exposure sources that contribute the lead concentration in breastmilk and health implication of early life stage exposure to lead among the breastfed infants are warranted.
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•We analyzed mercury and lead in 207 breastmilk collected at 15 and 30days after delivery.•Mercury was detected from 100% of breastmilk with the median of 0. 59μg/L.•Lead was detected in 77 % of breastmilk with the median of 4.71μg/L.•The hazard quotient of lead exceeded 1.0 for 71% of 15days and for 56% for 30days old infants from breastfeeding.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
Synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) and benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) are used as additives in many consumer products. Limited data are available on the accumulation of SMCs in human ...fluids, and no data are available on BUVSs. In this study, 208 human breast milk samples were collected from 87 participants during the lactation period at <7, 15, 30, and 90 days after delivery in Korea. The total concentrations of SMCs and BUVSs ranged from <LOQ to 1593 (median: 286)ng/g lipid weight and from <LOQ to 2172 (median: 64.7)ng/g lipid weight, respectively. The residue levels of HHCB and AHTN in our samples were the highest, compared to those reported in the US, Europe, and China. The predominant compounds were HHCB and AHTN for SMCs and UV-328 for BUVSs, consistent with consumption patterns of these contaminants. Over the lactation period, no significant changes were found in concentrations of SMCs and BUVSs for both parity groups. Maternal age, body mass index, and parity were not associated with the concentrations of SMCs and BUVSs, while gestational age and delivery mode were associated with these contaminants. The estimated daily intakes of HHCB and AHTN were lower than the provisional tolerable daily intake values, suggesting a limited health risk to Korean infants. This study is the first to comprehensively investigate the current levels, accumulation features, contributing factors of BUVSs associated with breast milk consumption in Korea.
•The highest levels of HHCB and AHTN worldwide were found in breast milk from Korea.•No significant changes in SMCs and BUVSs were found within a month of lactation.•Accumulation features of SMCs and BUVSs were dependent on the consumption patterns of these contaminants.•Estimated daily intakes of SMCs via breast milk were lower than the PTDI.•This study is the first to examine the occurrence of BUVSs in breast milk.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
Breast milk is a valuable biological specimen to assess maternal and infant exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). In this study, 208 breast milk samples were collected from 89 ...participants during lactation period, at <7, 15, 30, and 90 days postpartum, in four cities in Korea, and were determined for 19 PBDE congeners. The total PBDE concentrations (ΣPBDE) ranged from 0.23 to 68.4 (mean: 2.73) ng/g lipid weight, and were within the ranges reported for European and Asian countries. Within a month of lactation after delivery, no significant changes were found in the PBDE concentrations. The predominance of BDE 153 rather than BDE 47 was found in the most samples that BDE 153 was detected, and was likely to be associated with stepwise debromination of BDE 209. No associations were found between PBDE concentrations in breast milk and demographic parameters, except for ΣPBDE with maternal age and delivery mode. Certain types of diet such as corn, seafood and nut correlated significantly with PBDE levels in breast milk. The estimated daily intakes of ΣPBDE for breast-feeding infants were lower than the guidelines proposed by the US EPA, indicating limited health risk from PBDEs through breast feeding.
•No significant changes were found in the PBDE concentrations within a month of lactation after delivery.•Predominance of BDE 153 rather than BDE 47 was found in the most samples.•Corn, seafood and nut correlated significantly with PBDE levels in breast milk.•Estimated daily intake of PBDEs for breast-feeding infants was lower than the guideline proposed by the US EPA.•This is the first comprehensive study to assess infant exposure to PBDEs via breast milk in Korea.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
•The levels of PCBs and OCPs in breast milk significantly increased within the first month of lactation.•Seafood and noodle consumption was associated with the concentrations of PCBs and OCPs in ...breast milk.•OC exposure to breast-fed infants was below the thresholds proposed by US EPA and Health Canada.•Chlordane has a potential health risk to Korean infants via breast milk.•This is the first comprehensive study to assess infant exposure to OCs via breast milk in Korea.
Breast milk is a noninvasive specimen to assess maternal and infant exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). In this study, 206 breast milk samples were collected from 87 participants during lactation, at <7, 15, 30, or 90days postpartum in four cities in Korea. The total concentrations of PCBs (ΣPCB) and OCPs (ΣOCP) ranged from <LOQ to 84.0 (median: 12.1) ngg−1 lipid weight and from <LOQ to 559 (median: 144) ngg−1 lipid weight, respectively. The residue levels of these contaminants measured in our study were relatively lower than those reported for European, African and Asian populations. Within a month postpartum typically after day seven the levels of ΣPCB and ΣOCP significantly increased. Some OCP compounds were correlated with maternal age, BMI, parity, and delivery mode. Certain types of dietary habits such as seafood and noodle consumption were significantly associated with ΣPCB and ΣOCP. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of ΣPCB and ΣOCP were 45.2–127ngkg−1bwday−1 and 625–1259ngkg−1bwday−1 during lactation, respectively, which are lower than the threshold values proposed by the US EPA and Health Canada. The exposure of Korean infants to chlordanes via breast milk had a potential health risk which deserves further investigation.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
Data on the residue levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in baby food samples are scarce. This is the first study to explore current contamination status and exposure assessment of ...organochlorines (OCs), including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), in baby food from Korea. In this study, the concentrations of OCs were determined in homemade baby food samples (n=100) collected from 6-, 9-, 12- and 15-month-old infant groups. The average concentrations of PCBs, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethanes (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and chlordanes (CHLs) in baby food samples were 37.5, 96.6, 26.0, and 13.2pg/g fresh weight, respectively. The major compounds were CBs 28, 153, 52, and 33 for PCBs and p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDT and β-HCH for OCPs. The contribution of DDTs to the total OC concentrations increased from 30% (6-month-old infants) to 67% (15-month-old infants) with increasing infant age, while the concentrations of PCBs, HCHs and CHLs gradually decreased with increasing infant age, suggesting that highest priority for risk reduction of DDTs. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of OCs in Korean infants from baby food consumption were lower than the thresholds proposed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and Health Canada, implying limited potential health risks. However, considering simultaneous exposure from baby food and breast milk consumption, chlordanes and heptachlor epoxide posed potential health risks. Considering the importance of early development and the vulnerability of infants, it is essential to perform systematic monitoring and management programs of OCs in baby food for risk reduction in Korean infants.
•Occurrence of PCBs and OCPs in homemade baby food samples from Korea was confirmed.•OC exposure to Korean infant via baby food consumption was below the thresholds proposed by the US EPA and Health Canada.•Chlordane and heptachlor epoxide had a potential health risk to Korean infants via food and breast milk consumption.•This is the first study on exposure assessment of OCs via baby food consumption in Korea.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
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