•Current studies are based on different methodological approaches and data sources.•A robust food waste accounting methodology is needed for food waste reduction.•Food waste ranges: 194 and ...389 kg/p/y globally and 158 and 290 kg/p/y in EU.•Waste management and food security objectives lead to different accounting needs.•Distinction in edible and inedible is crucial for food waste prevention and food security.
Contributing to environmental pollution and resources depletion, food waste represents a considerable inefficiency of the global food system. Within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12.3, countries committed to halve per-capita food waste generated at retail and consumer levels and to decrease food waste along the food supply chain by 2030. Reliable and detailed information on food waste is of utmost importance for the actors of the food supply chain, organizations and governments willing to implement and monitor effective reduction strategies. The present paper is a review of existing studies on food waste generation at the global and European scales and aims primarily at describing and comparing the approaches adopted, and secondarily at analysing their potential in supporting food waste related European interventions and policies. Ten studies were selected among relevant scientific papers and grey literature and their underlying quantification methodologies were systematically analysed. Methodological elements discussed in the paper include type of waste streams captured by estimations, distinction between edible and inedible food waste along the agro-food supply chain, reported units of measure, overall inefficiencies of the food system, and uncertainty of data. Current estimations of food loss and waste generation range between 194–389 kg per person per year at the global scale, and between 158–298 kg per person per year at the European scale. However, further efforts are needed to improve their level of detail and reliability and to foster their support to food loss and waste-related strategies.
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About one third of the food produced globally is wasted along the food chain, representing a burden for the environment and an inefficiency of the food system. Tackling food waste is a priority on ...the global political agenda to guarantee food security. Defining a methodology for food waste quantification is key to monitoring progress towards the achievement of reduction targets. This paper summarises the outcomes of a workshop on food waste accounting co-organised by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre and Directorate-General on Health and Food Safety with the aim of stimulating harmonisation of methodologies, identifying challenges, opportunities, and further advancement for food waste accounting. The paper presents methodological aspects, e.g. system boundaries, reliability of data, accounting of water flows, to ensure better support to food waste policy design and interventions. It addresses all the actors of the food supply chain, governments, and research institutions.
•Methodology for waste accounting is key for monitoring progress towards reduction targets.•Challenges, opportunities, and further advancements for food waste accounting methodologies are discussed.•The harmonisation of accounting approaches is one of the main challenge.•Existing tools are opportunities to strengthen the efficacy of food waste accounting.•Further advancements include the increased availability of data, especially on liquid waste.
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•The carbon footprint of dairy farms in the Po Valley was analysed.•Dairy farms were specialized in raw milk production for direct human consumption.•Enteric fermentation, feed purchase, manure ...handling contributed more to impacts.•The study included a Monte Carlo simulation.
A survey on 61 dairy farms in the Po Valley was carried out using an LCA approach to identify milk production's carbon footprint (CF) at the farm gate, with 1 kg of fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM) as a functional unit. Data were collected and grouped into five main categories: feed purchase, in farm feed production, energy & resources, enteric fermentation, and livestock manure. The CF calculation was conducted according to IPCC guidelines 2006. Dairy herds were classified into three groups according to quartiles for the number of lactating dairy cows: small (< 87), medium (between 87 and 270), and large herds (> 270). The overall CF was 1.19 kg CO2-eq kg−1 FPCM, and the major contribution was from enteric fermentation (43.3%), feed purchase (29.1%), and manure handling (14.6%). Small farms have shown a higher CF (1.35 kg CO2-eq kg−1 FPCM) than medium and large herds (1.13 kg CO2-eq kg−1 FPCM, on average). A Monte Carlo simulation analysis showed a high contribution to the variance of CF due to feed purchase, mainly from proteic extra EU and cereals. Results could help plan mitigation initiatives in less performing herds.
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•Fresh fruit and vegetables contribute to almost 50% of food wasted by households.•Household avoidable & unavoidable waste of fresh fruits and vegetables are estimated for the EU28.•The inedible ...fraction of FFVs causes a “waste floor” of 21.5 kg/p/y which needs to be managed.•13% of purchased FFVs become avoidable waste highlighting the potential for prevention actions.•Large differences in the avoidable & unavoidable waste generation were found across countries.
According to national studies conducted in EU countries, fresh fruit and vegetables contribute to almost 50% of the food waste generated by households. This study presents an estimation of this waste flow, differentiating between unavoidable and avoidable waste. The calculation of these two flows serves different purposes. The first (21.1 kg per person per year) provides a measure of the amount of household waste intrinsically linked to the consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables, and which would still be generated even in a zero-avoidable waste future scenario. The second (14.2 kg per person per year) is a quantity that could be reduced/minimised by applying targeted prevention strategies. The unavoidable waste was assessed at product level, by considering the inedible fraction and the purchased amounts of the fifty-one most consumed fruits and vegetables in Europe. The avoidable waste was estimated at commodity group level, based on the results of national studies conducted in six EU member states. Significant differences in the amounts of avoidable and unavoidable waste generated were found across countries, due to different levels of wasteful behaviours (linked to cultural and economic factors) and different consumption patterns (influencing the amount of unavoidable waste generated). The results of this study have implications for policies both on the prevention and the management of household food waste.
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•A techno-economic and profitability analysis of a food waste biorefinery is presented.•Four relevant products were analysed: potato, tomato, citrus fruits and olives.•Food waste from the products ...processing was quantified at the European level.•The value-added product market price was identified as key element for profitability.•A market analysis is necessary prior the biorefinery implementation.
Food waste represents a potential source to produce value-added materials replacing the use of virgin ones. However, the use of food waste as feedstock in biorefineries is still at an early stage of development and studies assessing its economic viability at large scale are lacking in the literature. This paper presents a techno-economic and profitability analysis of four food waste biorefineries that use wastes from tomato, potato, orange, and olive processing as feedstock. The study includes the assessment of potentially available quantities of those waste flows in Europe. Due to the low technology readiness level of this kind of biorefineries, a screening methodology to estimate the investment and manufacturing costs as well as two profitability ratios (the return on investment and the payback time) was adopted. Results show that not all the waste feedstocks have the same potential. The most profitable options are those related to implementing fewer plants, namely concentrating the production and capitalising on economies of scale while being at risk of increasing externalities, e.g. due to logistics of the feedstocks.
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•A systematized food waste accounting at macro scale level was developed for Europe.•The accounting follows Mass Flow Analysis concepts, ensuring closed mass balance.•Disaggregated values per food ...supply chain stages and per food groups are presented.•Hotspots and food groups with higher share of food waste were identified.•The stage contributing the most to food waste varies depending on the food group.
In 2015, the United Nations defined the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), which include a target (12.3) on food waste. The target requires “by 2030, to halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and to reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses”. The target has increased awareness about the food waste problem and boosted research in food waste quantification. Nevertheless, there is a lack of studies that adopt a systematic approach to account for food waste providing disaggregated values per food supply chain stage and per food groups. Such an approach could support policy makers in prioritizing interventions for food waste reduction. To fill this gap, this paper presents a high-level top-down approach to food waste accounting in the European Union. The study aims to support the understanding of the mass flows associated with food production, consumption, and waste, addressing different food groups along the food supply chain. The method for accountin is the mass flow analysis. According to the results, cereals, fruit, and vegetables as the food groups are responsible for the highest amount of food waste, and the consumption stage to be responsible for the largest share of food waste for most food groups. This work highlights the need for further primary research on food waste generation in the EU. Ultimately, this would allow to robustly estimate the food waste generated at EU level, and establishing a more accurate baseline to track the progress towards SDG target 12.3.
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Food loss is a major concern from both environmental and social point of view. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been largely applied to quantify the environmental impact of food and to identify pros ...and cons of different options for optimisation of food systems management, including the recovery of potential waste occurring along the supply chain. However, within LCA case studies, there is still a general lack of proper accounting of food losses. A discrepancy both in food loss definition and in the approaches adopted to model the environmental burden of food loss has been observed. These aspects can lead to misleading and, sometimes, contrasting results, limiting the reliability of LCA as a decision support tool for assessing food production systems. This article aims, firstly, at providing a preliminary analysis on how the modelling of food loss has been conducted so far in LCA studies. Secondly, it suggests a definition for food loss to be adopted. Finally, the article investigates the consequence of using such definition and it proposes potential paths for the development of a common methodological framework to increase the robustness and comparability of the LCA studies. It discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the different approaches adopted to account for food loss along the food supply chain: primary production, transport and storage, food processing, distribution, consumption and end of life. It is also proposed to account separately between avoidable, possibly avoidable and unavoidable food loss by means of specific indicators. Finally, some recommendations for LCA practitioners are provided on how to deal with food loss in LCA studies focused on food products. The most relevant recommendations concern: i) the systematic accounting of food loss generated along the food supply chain; ii) the modelling of waste treatments according to the specific characteristics of food; iii) the sensitivity analysis on the modelling approaches adopted to model multi-functionality; and iv) the need of transparency in describing the modelling of food loss generation and management.
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A deep understanding of the water-food nexus it is of a paramount importance as an avenue for sustainable development. Water forms the foundation for food production and a sustainable use of this ...resource is essential to guarantee the long-term productivity and to build resilient capacity in food and agricultural systems. Here we present methodological challenges regarding different water footprint (WF) methods applied to different dietary scenarios. The volumetric WF of three theoretical but realistic dietary patterns has been quantified (Omnivorous(O), Vegetarian(V) and Vegan(VG)), by means of the Water Footprint Network methodology. Moreover, the AWARE methodology is applied to assess potential impacts of water use trough the Water Scarcity Footprint (WSF). Diets are set to integrate and consider different drivers for food consumption encompassing the social value of the Mediterranean diet, healthy diet recommendations, food preferences of Italian consumers and the trade dimension of foodstuffs. In terms of volumetric WF, the O diet is the most water intensive one accounting for 2800 L/capita/day. A shift from an O to a V and VG diets allows to reduce the volumetric WF respectively 10% and 14%. Green water consumption accounts for the largest share (85%) in all three scenarios. Considering the WSF, V healthy diet is similar to the VG resulting in 11,069 and 11,130 L H2Oeq/capita/day respectively, whereas the O diet resulted in 11,932 L H2Oeq/capita/day. A sensitivity analysis was performed by changing each food category, one at a time, to its maximum and minimum value, in order to evaluate the significance of changes in the volumetric WF and WSF as well as the variables that mostly contribute to them. Results show that the volumetric WF associated with V and VG diets consumption overlay the O diet in respectively 53.5% and 35.7% of runs, while overlapping is improved comparing WSFs results. In this case, the WSFs of V and VG diets overlay the O diet in 83.5% of runs, suggesting that the alternative dietary scenarios would have little effect on the overall WSF and that the results are particularly sensitive to the different countries of importation. Results demonstrate the need to consider both volumetric WF and WSF with particular attention to trade analysis in order to support the development of new policies with the aim to foster sustainable consumption patterns, while preserving water resources.
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•Volumetric WF and Water Scarcity Footprint of three healthy diets are presented.•A sensitivity analysis by means of Monte Carlo simulations has been performed.•The Omnivorous diet has the highest water footprint, followed by Vegetarian and Vegan.•The Water Scarcity Footprint is marginally sensitive to three diets.•To reduce dietary water impacts origin has to be taken into consideration.
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In light of the considerable pressure exerted by food production on the environment, the assessment of the environmental burdens of dietary choices has recently gained interest among the scientific ...community. Several studies based on life cycle thinking approach agreed that a transition from an omnivorous to either a vegan or vegetarian diets would reduce the environmental impact associated with food consumption. The majority of the studies set the system boundaries up to the retail, excluding the consumption phase and generally do not account for uncertainties. The aim of the present study was to assess how personal consumption choices and behaviour can affect the greenhouse gas emissions generated by three balanced dietary patterns (omnivorous, vegetarian and vegan), defined on the basis of nutritional recommendations for an average Italian man. It took into consideration the uncertainties associated with three elements, namely the greenhouse gas emissions due to the production of the food items, the emissions associated with cooking and the food wasted by consumers.
The results of the study highlighted that, despite the higher share of greenhouse gas emissions of the supply chain stages prior to consumption (66%–74% of the total emissions), domestic behaviours have an important influence of the total greenhouse gas emissions of the diet, which can offset the lower GHG emissions due to the choice of vegetable-origin foods. In fact, 15%–21% of the total emissions are associated to the cooking phase and 11%–13% to the food waste generation. Therefore, this study remarks the importance of adopting a cradle to grave perspective when assessing the environmental burden of dietary patterns and emphasises the central role of consumers in the definition of low GHG-emitting dietary patterns.
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•Cradle to grave approach should be preferred comparing dietary patterns.•Production of food has to be considered within consumption and food waste stages.•Omnivorous, vegetarian and vegan diets have different impact on climate.•Consumers have a central role in the definition of low GHG-emitting dietary patterns.•Further modelling efforts needed to improve the modelling of personal behaviour.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Meat production and consumption is associated with the generation of significant environmental pressure and impacts, and resource inefficiencies. This study combines Material Flow Analysis (MFA) and ...Life cycle Assessment (LCA) to analyse the meat supply chain in order to better comprehend the circularity of the system, considering the Italian meat supply chain as a case study. The system boundaries of both the MFA and LCA included all the life cycle stages starting from slaughter phase to meat consumption at household and food services level. The LCA study included also all the stages upstream of the slaughter phase. Consumed meat and animal by-products (ABPs) were quantified, and the potential benefits due to the re-use of rendered ABPs were assessed. Results showed an average meat consumption of 55 kg/per-capita/year with pig, poultry and cattle meat contributing respectively by 46%, 27% and 25%, followed by other meat categories, representing 2% of the total meat consumption. Daily meat consumption is responsible for the emission of 2.80 kg CO2eq per capita with beef meat contributing to 65% of the emissions. Results showed the same relative importance among meat types for acidification, terrestrial and freshwater eutrophication, and land use impact categories. A sensitivity analysis showed that the approach to allocate environmental impacts between meat and rendered ABPs did not affect the ranking of meat categories. The system under study resulted to be efficient and to promote circularity, thanks to the re-use and valorisation of ABPs.
•Meat production and consumption systems assessed via MFA and LCA.•A case study focusing on the Italian meat system.•MFA allows identification of by products and level of circularity of the system.•Impacts are mainly due to cattle meat followed by pig and poultry.•Different allocation options do not change the ranking of the meat types.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
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