Aerosol nucleation parameterization models commonly used in 3-D air quality and climate models have serious limitations. This includes classical nucleation theory based variants, empirical models and ...other formulations. Recent work based on detailed and extensive laboratory measurements and improved quantum chemistry computation has substantially advanced the state of nucleation parameterizations. In terms of inorganic nucleation involving BHN and THN including ion effects these new models should be considered as worthwhile replacements for the old models. However, the contribution of organic species to nucleation remains poorly quantified. New particle formation consists of a distinct post-nucleation growth regime which is characterized by a strong Kelvin curvature effect and is thus dependent on availability of very low volatility organic species or sulfuric acid. There have been advances in the understanding of the multiphase chemistry of biogenic and anthropogenic organic compounds which facilitate to overcome the initial aerosol growth barrier. Implementation of processes influencing new particle formation is challenging in 3-D models and there is a lack of comprehensive parameterizations. This review considers the existing models and recent innovations.
•Significant advances have been made in aerosol inorganic nucleation models based on laboratory analysis.•Current widely used nucleation models have serious deficiencies.•Advances in measurement instruments have revolutionized understanding of aerosol nucleation processes at scales as small as 1 nm.•The role of temperature, RH and chemical composition in the contribution of organics to nucleation is not accounted for in models.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
Mercury and its related compounds are widely recognized as global pollutants. The accurate atmospheric modeling of its transport and fate has been the subject of much research throughout the last ...decade. Atmospheric gas, aqueous and heterogeneous chemistry are expected to occur for Hg-containing species and accurate implementation of their chemical parameters is essential for realistic modeling of mercury cycling. Although significant progress has been made, the current state of knowledge of mercury chemistry exhibits numerous uncertainties. The objective of this two-part review is to explore the sources of uncertainty from the viewpoint of mercury chemistry. In this first part, we assess the discrepancy that exists in the currently available mercury kinetic parameters for the gas and aqueous phases. Theoretical and experimental approaches of rate constant determination exhibit various levels of limitation and accuracy. We present an overview of the available techniques and the assumptions and shortcomings associated with these methods in order to assist the atmospheric modellers. We review specific mercury oxidation and reduction reactions that have been investigated and are commonly implemented in mercury models with respect to the uncertainties associated with them. We reveal that for most of these mercury reactions our current state of knowledge reflects a lack of proper understanding of their mechanisms. Atmospheric heterogeneity is a topic of great importance and we elaborate upon it in part II of this review.
► We assess discrepancies in the existing mercury gas and aqueous phase rate constants. ► Assumptions in experimental and theoretical methods of rate determination are discussed. ► Uncertainties for specific mercury redox reactions are evaluated. ► Our current state of knowledge lacks proper understanding of most mercury reaction mechanisms. ► The available rate constants are not realistic due to atmospheric heterogeneity.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
The authors examines mercury physiochemical and biogeochemical transformation in the atmosphere and at atmospheric interfaces. topics discussed include rapid mercury depletion events and ...heterogeneous chemical reactions involving mercury.
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IJS, KILJ, NUK, PNG, UL, UM
Aerosol mixing state significantly affects concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), wet removal rates, thermodynamic properties, heterogeneous chemistry, and aerosol optical properties, ...with implications for human health and climate. Over the last two decades, significant research effort has gone into finding computationally-efficient methods for representing the most important aspects of aerosol mixing state in air pollution, weather prediction, and climate models. In this review, we summarize the interactions between mixing-state and aerosol hygroscopicity, optical properties, equilibrium thermodynamics and heterogeneous chemistry. We focus on the effects of simplified assumptions of aerosol mixing state on CCN concentrations, wet deposition, and aerosol absorption. We also summarize previous approaches for representing aerosol mixing state in atmospheric models, and we make recommendations regarding the representation of aerosol mixing state in future modelling studies.
High levels of mercury in marine mammals threaten the health of Arctic inhabitants. Whether the Arctic Ocean (AO) is a sink or a source of atmospheric mercury is unknown. Given the paucity of ...observations in the Arctic, models are useful in addressing this question. GEOS-Chem and GRAHM, two complex numerical mercury models, present contrasting pictures of atmospheric mercury input to AO at 45 and 108 Mg yr–1, respectively, and ocean evasion at 90 and 33 Mg yr–1, respectively. We provide a comprehensive evaluation of GRAHM simulated atmospheric mercury input to AO using mercury observations in air, precipitation and snowpacks, and an analysis of the discrepancy between the two modeling estimates using observations. We discover two peaks in high-latitude summertime concentrations of atmospheric mercury. We show that the first is caused mainly by snowmelt revolatilization and the second by AO evasion of mercury. Riverine mercury export to AO is estimated at 50 Mg yr–1 based on measured DOC export and at 15.5–31 Mg yr–1 based on simulated mercury in meltwater. The range of simulated mercury fluxes to and from AO reflects uncertainties in modeling mercury in the Arctic; comprehensive observations in all compartments of the Arctic ecosystem are needed to close the gap.
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IJS, KILJ, NUK, PNG, UL, UM
Despite direct and indirect evidence suggesting that heterogeneous surfaces potentially play a key role in mercury chemistry, there is little known about mercury reactions and equilibrium processes ...that take place at atmospherically relevant surfaces. The lack of knowledge of mercury surface chemistry is a major gap for adequate modeling of mercury cycling. In part I of this review, we assessed the sources of uncertainty associated with existing kinetic parameters. In this part, we present evidence that supports surface–mercury interactions in the ecosystem elucidating the importance of heterogeneous and interfacial chemistry from a fundamental viewpoint. Consequently, we draw attention to the chemical processes that are missing and/or are inadequately incorporated in the atmospheric mercury models and highlight some of the recent advances in this field. We reveal that adsorption equilibrium of mercury species, most of which are not well characterized, to natural surfaces such as atmospheric particles and air/water interface are not known. Gas–liquid partitioning of mercury and its compounds are not adequately implemented. Equilibrium constants for aqueous phase complex formation with dissolved organic matters and formation of possible solid mercury clusters and nanoparticles are not considered in the global models. Potential heterogeneous mercury reduction reactions that can be important in mercury cycling require further evaluation which includes characterizing the influence of surfaces on mercury chemistry. The implementation of chemical processes for which information is available but not currently included in the models bears the potential of greatly reducing the uncertainties that are currently present in the models.
► Numerous evidence of mercury–surface interactions exist. ► The lack of knowledge of mercury surface chemistry adds to uncertainty in mercury modeling. ► Mercury species, phase transition, and complex and solid formation are not well characterized. ► Aerosols, DOM, ice, snow packs, and vegetation surfaces influence mercury chemistry. ► Potential mercury reduction reactions important in mercury cycling are discussed.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
Turbulence controls the vertical transfer of momentum, heat and trace constituents in the atmospheric boundary layer. In the lowest 10% of this layer lies the surface boundary layer (SBL) where the ...vertical fluxes of transferred quantities have been successfully parameterized using the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory in weather forecast, climate and atmospheric chemistry models. However, there is a large degree of empiricism in the stability-correction parameterizations used to formulate eddy diffusivity and aerodynamic resistance particularly under strongly stable ambient conditions. Although the influence of uncertainties in stability-correction parameterizations on eddy diffusivity is actively studied in boundary-layer meteorological modeling, its impact on dry deposition in atmospheric chemistry modeling is not well characterized. In this study, we address this gap by providing the mathematical basis for the relationship between the formulations of vertical surface flux used in meteorological and atmospheric chemistry modeling communities, and by examining the sensitivity of the modeled dry deposition velocities in statically stable SBL to the choice of stability-correction parameterizations used in three operational and/or research environmental models (GEM/GEM-MACH, ECMWF IFS and CMAQ-MM5). Aerodynamic resistances (ra) calculated by the three sets of parameterizations are notably different from each other and are also different from those calculated by a “z-less” scaling formulation under strongly stable conditions (the bulk Richardson number > 0.2). Furthermore, we show that many atmospheric chemistry models calculate ra using formulations which are inconsistent with the derivation of micro-meteorological parameters. Finally, practical implications of the differences in stability-correction algorithms are discussed for the computations of dry deposition velocities of SO2, O3 and reactive bromine compounds for specific cases of stable SBL.
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•Stability-correction algorithms for ra show notable discrepancies at RiB > 0.2.•Some of the atmospheric chemistry models compute L, u∗ and ra inconsistently.•Choice of ra formulation impacts the simulated surface chemical exchange rates.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
Mercury in the Arctic is an important environmental and human health issue. The reliance of Northern Peoples on traditional foods, such as marine mammals, for subsistence means that they are ...particularly at risk from mercury exposure. The cycling of mercury in Arctic marine systems is reviewed here, with emphasis placed on the key sources, pathways and processes which regulate mercury levels in marine food webs and ultimately the exposure of human populations to this contaminant. While many knowledge gaps exist limiting our ability to make strong conclusions, it appears that the long-range transport of mercury from Asian emissions is an important source of atmospheric Hg to the Arctic and that mercury methylation resulting in monomethylmercury production (an organic form of mercury which is both toxic and bioaccumulated) in Arctic marine waters is the principal source of mercury incorporated into food webs. Mercury concentrations in biological organisms have increased since the onset of the industrial age and are controlled by a combination of abiotic factors (e.g., monomethylmercury supply), food web dynamics and structure, and animal behavior (e.g., habitat selection and feeding behavior). Finally, although some Northern Peoples have high mercury concentrations of mercury in their blood and hair, harvesting and consuming traditional foods have many nutritional, social, cultural and physical health benefits which must be considered in risk management and communication.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
A useful aerosol model must be able to adequately resolve the chemical complexity and phase state of the wide particle size range arising from the many different secondary aerosol growth processes to ...assess their environmental and health impacts. Over the past two decades, significant advances in understanding of gas-aerosol partitioning have occurred, particularly with respect to the role of organic compounds, yet aerosol representations have changed little in air quality and climate models since the late 1990s and early 2000s. The gas-aerosol partitioning models which are still commonly used in air quality models are separate inorganics-only thermodynamics and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation based on absorptive partitioning theory with an assumption of well-mixed liquid-like particles that continuously maintain equilibrium with the gas phase. These widely used approaches in air quality models for secondary aerosol composition and growth based on separated inorganic and organic processes are inadequate. This review summarizes some of the important developments during the past two decades in understanding of gas aerosol mass transfer processes. Substantial increases in computer performance in the last decade justify increasing the process detail in aerosol models. Organics play a central role during post-nucleation growth into the accumulation mode and change the hygroscopic properties of sulfate aerosol. At present, combined inorganic-organic aerosol thermodynamics models are too computationally expensive to be used online in 3-D simulations without high levels of aggregation of organics into a small number of functional surrogates. However, there has been progress in simplified modeling of liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and distinct chemical regimes within organic-rich and inorganic-rich phases. Additional limitations of commonly used thermodynamics models are related to lack of surface tension data for various aerosol compositions in the small size limit, and lack of a comprehensive representation of surface interaction terms such as disjoining pressure in the Gibbs free energy which become significant in the small size limit and which affect both chemical composition and particle growth. As a result, there are significant errors in modeling of hygroscopic growth and phase transitions for particles in the nucleation and Aitken modes. There is also increasing evidence of reduced bulk diffusivity in viscous organic particles and, therefore, traditional secondary organic aerosol models, which are typically based on the assumption of instantaneous equilibrium gas-particle partitioning and neglect the kinetic effects, are no longer tenable.
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