The growing burden of diabetes worldwide is a threat to tuberculosis (TB) control. Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) due to TB drugs is a significant concern and there is currently limited evidence on ...the effect of diabetes on TB DILI. This study sought to investigate the effect of diabetes as a risk factor for DILI and to further study any potential co-factors.
An unmatched case-control study. Cases were TB patients on 2RHZE/4RH presenting with DILI from 2013-2017 in Porto Alegre, Brazil. Controls were contemporaneous TB patients without DILI being treated in any one of the same five Porto Alegre TB clinics. The exposure variables were diabetes (main exposure variable), age, sex, alcohol misuse, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C (HCV) and B (HBV) viruses, concomitant hepatotoxic drugs, other liver diseases and TB site. The outcome variable was the occurrence of DILI.
Odds of DILI were increased by: older age group 51-60, 61-70 and 71-93 years (adjusted OR 2.39, 95%CI 1.30-4,38; adjusted OR 4.37, 2.28-8,35; adjusted OR 12.91, 5.81-28,66, respectively), HIV positive status (adjusted OR 3.59, 95%CI 2.25-5.73), HCV positive status (adjusted OR 3.49, 95%CI 1.96-6.21) and having concurrent pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB (adjusted OR 3.16, 95%CI 1.93-5.19). Diabetes, gender, and other hepatotoxic drugs were not associated with DILI.
This study confirms the association between TB DILI and well-known risk factors but did not demonstrate increased odds of TB DILI in patients with diabetes.
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OBJECTIVES:Tuberculosis (TB) is estimated to be the leading cause of HIV-related deaths globally. However, since HIV-associated TB frequently remains unascertained, we systematically reviewed autopsy ...studies to determine the true burden of TB at death.
METHODS:We systematically searched Medline and Embase databases (to end 2013) for literature reporting on health facility-based autopsy studies of HIV-infected adults and/or children in resource-limited settings. Using forest plots and random-effects meta-analysis, we summarized the TB prevalence found at autopsy and used meta-regression to explore variables associated with autopsy TB prevalence.
RESULTS:We included 36 eligible studies, reporting on 3237 autopsies. Autopsy TB prevalence was extremely heterogeneous (range 0–64.4%), but was markedly higher in adults pooled prevalence 39.7%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 32.4–47.0% compared to children (pooled prevalence 4.5%, 95% CI 1.7–7.4%). Post-mortem TB prevalence varied by world region, with pooled estimates in adults of 63.2% (95% CI 57.7–68.7%) in South Asia (n = 2 studies); 43.2% (95% CI 38.0–48.3) in sub-Saharan Africa (n = 9 studies); and 27.1% (95% CI 16.0–38.1%) in the Americas (n = 5 studies). Autopsy prevalence positively correlated with contemporary estimates of national TB prevalence. TB in adults was disseminated in 87.9% (82.2–93.7%) of cases and was considered the cause of death in 91.4% (95% CI 85.8–97.0%) of TB cases. Overall, TB was the cause of death in 37.2% (95% CI 25.7–48.7%) of adult HIV/AIDS-related deaths. TB remained undiagnosed at death in 45.8% (95% CI 32.6–59.1%) of TB cases.
CONCLUSIONS:In resource-limited settings, TB accounts for approximately 40% of facility-based HIV/AIDS-related adult deaths. Almost half of this disease remains undiagnosed at the time of death. These findings highlight the critical need to improve the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of HIV-associated TB globally.
Introduction Universal test and treat (UTT) is a population-based strategy that aims to ensure widespread HIV testing and rapid antiretroviral therapy (ART) for all who have tested positive ...regardless of CD4 count to decrease HIV incidence and improve health outcomes. Little is known about the specific resources required to implement UTT in correctional facilities for incarcerated people. The primary aim of this study was to describe the resources used to implement UTT and to provide detailed costing to inform UTT scale-up in similar settings. Methods The costing study was a cross-sectional descriptive study conducted in three correctional complexes, Johannesburg Correctional Facility in Johannesburg (>4000 inmates) South Africa, and Brandvlei (~3000 inmates), South Africa and Lusaka Central (~1400 inmates), Zambia. Costing was determined through a survey conducted between September and December 2017 that identified materials and labour used for three separate components of UTT: HIV testing services (HTS), ART initiation, and ART maintenance. Our study participants were staff working in the correctional facilities involved in any activity related to UTT implementation. Unit costs were reported as cost per client served while total costs were reported for all clients seen over a 12-month period. Results The cost of HIV testing services (HTS) per client was $ 92.12 at Brandvlei, $ 73.82 at Johannesburg, and $ 65.15 at Lusaka. The largest cost driver for HIV testing at Brandvlei were staff costs at 55.6% of the total cost, while at Johannesburg (56.5%) and Lusaka (86.6%) supplies were the largest contributor. The cost per client initiated on ART was $917 for Brandvlei, $421.8 for Johannesburg, and $252.1 for Lusaka. The activity cost drivers were adherence counselling at Brandvlei (59%), and at Johannesburg and Lusaka it was the actual ART initiation at 75.6% and 75.8%, respectively. The annual unit cost for ART maintenance was $2,640.6 for Brandvlei, $710 for Johannesburg, and $385.5 for Lusaka. The activity cost drivers for all three facilities were side effect monitoring, and initiation of isoniazid preventive treatment (IPT), cotrimoxazole, and fluconazole, with this comprising 44.7% of the total cost at Brandvlei, 88.9% at Johannesburg, and 50.5% at Lusaka. Conclusion Given the needs of this population, the opportunity to reach inmates at high risk for HIV, and overall national and global 95-95-95 goals, the UTT policies for incarcerated individuals are of vital importance. Our findings provide comparator costing data and highlight key drivers of UTT cost by facility.
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Mobile text messaging and medication monitors (medication monitor boxes) have the potential to improve adherence to tuberculosis (TB) treatment and reduce the need for directly observed treatment ...(DOT), but to our knowledge they have not been properly evaluated in TB patients. We assessed the effectiveness of text messaging and medication monitors to improve medication adherence in TB patients.
In a pragmatic cluster-randomised trial, 36 districts/counties (each with at least 300 active pulmonary TB patients registered in 2009) within the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Hunan, and Chongqing, China, were randomised using stratification and restriction to one of four case-management approaches in which patients received reminders via text messages, a medication monitor, combined, or neither (control). Patients in the intervention arms received reminders to take their drugs and reminders for monthly follow-up visits, and the managing doctor was recommended to switch patients with adherence problems to more intensive management or DOT. In all arms, patients took medications out of a medication monitor box, which recorded when the box was opened, but the box gave reminders only in the medication monitor and combined arms. Patients were followed up for 6 mo. The primary endpoint was the percentage of patient-months on TB treatment where at least 20% of doses were missed as measured by pill count and failure to open the medication monitor box. Secondary endpoints included additional adherence and standard treatment outcome measures. Interventions were not masked to study staff and patients. From 1 June 2011 to 7 March 2012, 4,292 new pulmonary TB patients were enrolled across the 36 clusters. A total of 119 patients (by arm: 33 control, 33 text messaging, 23 medication monitor, 30 combined) withdrew from the study in the first month because they were reassessed as not having TB by their managing doctor (61 patients) or were switched to a different treatment model because of hospitalisation or travel (58 patients), leaving 4,173 TB patients (by arm: 1,104 control, 1,008 text messaging, 997 medication monitor, 1,064 combined). The cluster geometric mean of the percentage of patient-months on TB treatment where at least 20% of doses were missed was 29.9% in the control arm; in comparison, this percentage was 27.3% in the text messaging arm (adjusted mean ratio aMR 0.94, 95% CI 0.71, 1.24), 17.0% in the medication monitor arm (aMR 0.58, 95% CI 0.42, 0.79), and 13.9% in the combined arm (aMR 0.49, 95% CI 0.27, 0.88). Patient loss to follow-up was lower in the text messaging arm than the control arm (aMR 0.42, 95% CI 0.18-0.98). Equipment malfunction or operation error was reported in all study arms. Analyses separating patients with and without medication monitor problems did not change the results. Initiation of intensive management was underutilised.
This study is the first to our knowledge to utilise a randomised trial design to demonstrate the effectiveness of a medication monitor to improve medication adherence in TB patients. Reminders from medication monitors improved medication adherence in TB patients, but text messaging reminders did not. In a setting such as China where universal use of DOT is not feasible, innovative approaches to support patients in adhering to TB treatment, such as this, are needed.
Current Controlled Trials, ISRCTN46846388.
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Conventional HIV testing services have been less comprehensive in reaching men than in reaching women globally, but HIV self-testing (HIVST) appears to be an acceptable alternative. Measurement of ...linkage to post-test services following HIVST remains the biggest challenge, yet is the biggest driver of cost-effectiveness. We investigated the impact of HIVST alone or with additional interventions on the uptake of testing and linkage to care or prevention among male partners of antenatal care clinic attendees in a novel adaptive trial.
An adaptive multi-arm, 2-stage cluster randomised trial was conducted between 8 August 2016 and 30 June 2017, with antenatal care clinic (ANC) days (i.e., clusters of women attending on a single day) as the unit of randomisation. Recruitment was from Ndirande, Bangwe, and Zingwangwa primary health clinics in urban Blantyre, Malawi. Women attending an ANC for the first time for their current pregnancy (regardless of trimester), 18 years and older, with a primary male partner not known to be on ART were enrolled in the trial after giving consent. Randomisation was to either the standard of care (SOC; with a clinic invitation letter to the male partner) or 1 of 5 intervention arms: the first arm provided women with 2 HIVST kits for their partners; the second and third arms provided 2 HIVST kits along with a conditional fixed financial incentive of $3 or $10; the fourth arm provided 2 HIVST kits and a 10% chance of receiving $30 in a lottery; and the fifth arm provided 2 HIVST kits and a phone call reminder for the women's partners. The primary outcome was the proportion of male partners who were reported to have tested for HIV and linked into care or prevention within 28 days, with referral for antiretroviral therapy (ART) or circumcision accordingly. Women were interviewed at 28 days about partner testing and adverse events. Cluster-level summaries compared each intervention versus SOC using eligible women as the denominator (intention-to-treat). Risk ratios were adjusted for male partner testing history and recruitment clinic. A total of 2,349/3,137 (74.9%) women participated (71 ANC days), with a mean age of 24.8 years (SD: 5.4). The majority (2,201/2,233; 98.6%) of women were married, 254/2,107 (12.3%) were unable to read and write, and 1,505/2,247 (67.0%) were not employed. The mean age for male partners was 29.6 years (SD: 7.5), only 88/2,200 (4.0%) were unemployed, and 966/2,210 (43.7%) had never tested for HIV before. Women in the SOC arm reported that 17.4% (71/408) of their partners tested for HIV, whereas a much higher proportion of partners were reported to have tested for HIV in all intervention arms (87.0%-95.4%, p < 0.001 in all 5 intervention arms). As compared with those who tested in the SOC arm (geometric mean 13.0%), higher proportions of partners met the primary endpoint in the HIVST + $3 (geometric mean 40.9%, adjusted risk ratio aRR 3.01 95% CI 1.63-5.57, p < 0.001), HIVST + $10 (51.7%, aRR 3.72 95% CI 1.85-7.48, p < 0.001), and phone reminder (22.3%, aRR 1.58 95% CI 1.07-2.33, p = 0.021) arms. In contrast, there was no significant increase in partners meeting the primary endpoint in the HIVST alone (geometric mean 17.5%, aRR 1.45 95% CI 0.99-2.13, p = 0.130) or lottery (18.6%, aRR 1.43 95% CI 0.96-2.13, p = 0.211) arms. The lottery arm was dropped at interim analysis. Overall, 46 male partners were confirmed to be HIV positive, 42 (91.3%) of whom initiated ART within 28 days; 222 tested HIV negative and were not already circumcised, of whom 135 (60.8%) were circumcised as part of the trial. No serious adverse events were reported. Costs per male partner who attended the clinic with a confirmed HIV test result were $23.73 and $28.08 for the HIVST + $3 and HIVST + $10 arms, respectively. Notable limitations of the trial included the relatively small number of clusters randomised to each arm, proxy reporting of the male partner testing outcome, and being unable to evaluate retention in care.
In this study, the odds of men's linkage to care or prevention increased substantially using conditional fixed financial incentives plus partner-delivered HIVST; combinations were potentially affordable.
ISRCTN 18421340.
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Summary Background In South Africa, sputum smear microscopy has been replaced with Xpert MTB/RIF as the initial diagnostic test for tuberculosis. In a pragmatic parallel cluster-randomised trial, we ...evaluated the effect on patient and programme outcomes. Methods We randomly allocated 20 laboratories (clusters) in medium-burden districts of South Africa to either an Xpert (immediate Xpert) or microscopy (Xpert deferred) group (1:1), stratified by province. At two primary care clinics per laboratory, a systematic sample of adults giving sputum for tuberculosis investigation was assessed for eligibility. The primary outcome was mortality at 6 months from enrolment. Masking of participants' group allocation was not possible because of the pragmatic trial design. The trial is registered with the ISRCTN registry (ISRCTN68905568) and the South African Clinical Trial Register (DOH-27-1011-3849). Findings Between June and November, 2012, 4972 people were screened, and 4656 (93·6%) enrolled (median age 36 years; 2891 62% female; 2212 62% reported being HIV-positive). There was no difference between the Xpert and microscopy groups with respect to mortality at 6 months (91/2324 3·9% vs 116/2332 5·0%, respectively; adjusted risk ratio aRR 1·10, 95% CI 0·75–1·62). Interpretation Xpert did not reduce mortality at 6 months compared with sputum microscopy. Improving outcomes in drug-sensitive tuberculosis programmes might require not only better diagnostic tests but also better linkage to care. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Two weeks' isolation is widely recommended for people commencing treatment for pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). The evidence that this corresponds to clearance of potentially infectious tuberculous ...mycobacteria in sputum is not well established. This World Health Organization-commissioned review investigated sputum sterilisation dynamics during TB treatment.
For the main analysis, 2 systematic literature searches of OvidSP MEDLINE, Embase, and Global Health, and EBSCO CINAHL Plus were conducted to identify studies with data on TB infectiousness (all studies to search date, 1 December 2017) and all randomised controlled trials (RCTs) for drug-susceptible TB (from 1 January 1990 to search date, 20 February 2018). Included articles reported on patients receiving effective treatment for culture-confirmed drug-susceptible pulmonary TB. The outcome of interest was sputum bacteriological conversion: the proportion of patients having converted by a defined time point or a summary measure of time to conversion, assessed by smear or culture. Any study design with 10 or more particpants was considered. Record sifting and data extraction were performed in duplicate. Random effects meta-analyses were performed. A narrative summary additionally describes the results of a systematic search for data evaluating infectiousness from humans to experimental animals (PubMed, all studies to 27 March 2018). Other evidence on duration of infectiousness-including studies reporting on cough dynamics, human tuberculin skin test conversion, or early bactericidal activity of TB treatments-was outside the scope of this review. The literature search was repeated on 22 November 2020, at the request of the editors, to identify studies published after the previous censor date. Four small studies reporting 3 different outcome measures were identified, which included no data that would alter the findings of the review; they are not included in the meta-analyses. Of 5,290 identified records, 44 were included. Twenty-seven (61%) were RCTs and 17 (39%) were cohort studies. Thirteen studies (30%) reported data from Africa, 12 (27%) from Asia, 6 (14%) from South America, 5 (11%) from North America, and 4 (9%) from Europe. Four studies reported data from multiple continents. Summary estimates suggested smear conversion in 9% of patients at 2 weeks (95% CI 3%-24%, 1 single study N = 1), and 82% of patients at 2 months of treatment (95% CI 78%-86%, N = 10). Among baseline smear-positive patients, solid culture conversion occurred by 2 weeks in 5% (95% CI 0%-14%, N = 2), increasing to 88% at 2 months (95% CI 84%-92%, N = 20). At equivalent time points, liquid culture conversion was achieved in 3% (95% CI 1%-16%, N = 1) and 59% (95% CI 47%-70%, N = 8). Significant heterogeneity was observed. Further interrogation of the data to explain this heterogeneity was limited by the lack of disaggregation of results, including by factors such as HIV status, baseline smear status, and the presence or absence of lung cavitation.
This systematic review found that most patients remained culture positive at 2 weeks of TB treatment, challenging the view that individuals are not infectious after this interval. Culture positivity is, however, only 1 component of infectiousness, with reduced cough frequency and aerosol generation after TB treatment initiation likely to also be important. Studies that integrate our findings with data on cough dynamics could provide a more complete perspective on potential transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by individuals on treatment.
Systematic review registration: PROSPERO 85226.
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Cluster randomised trials (CRTs) are often designed with a small number of clusters, but it is not clear which analysis methods are optimal when the outcome is binary. This simulation study aimed to ...determine (i) whether cluster-level analysis (CL), generalised linear mixed models (GLMM), and generalised estimating equations with sandwich variance (GEE) approaches maintain acceptable type-one error including the impact of non-normality of cluster effects and low prevalence, and if so (ii) which methods have the greatest power. We simulated CRTs with 8-30 clusters, altering the cluster-size, outcome prevalence, intracluster correlation coefficient, and cluster effect distribution. We analysed each dataset with weighted and unweighted CL; GLMM with adaptive quadrature and restricted pseudolikelihood; GEE with Kauermann-and-Carroll and Fay-and-Graubard sandwich variance using independent and exchangeable working correlation matrices. P-values were from a t-distribution with degrees of freedom (DoF) as clusters minus cluster-level parameters; GLMM pseudolikelihood also used Satterthwaite and Kenward-Roger DoF.
Unweighted CL, GLMM pseudolikelihood, and Fay-and-Graubard GEE with independent or exchangeable working correlation matrix controlled type-one error in > 97% scenarios with clusters minus parameters DoF. Cluster-effect distribution and prevalence of outcome did not usually affect analysis method performance. GEE had the least power. With 20-30 clusters, GLMM had greater power than CL with varying cluster-size but similar power otherwise; with fewer clusters, GLMM had lower power with common cluster-size, similar power with medium variation, and greater power with large variation in cluster-size.
We recommend that CRTs with ≤ 30 clusters and a binary outcome use an unweighted CL or restricted pseudolikelihood GLMM both with DoF clusters minus cluster-level parameters.
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