Key points
The contribution of blood flow through intrapulmonary arteriovenous anastomoses (IPAVAs) to pulmonary gas exchange efficiency remains unknown and controversial.
Intravenous infusion of ...adrenaline (epinephrine) increases blood flow through IPAVAs detected by the transpulmonary passage of saline contrast and breathing 40% O2 minimizes potential contributions from ventilation‐to‐perfusion inequality and diffusion limitation.
Pulmonary gas exchange efficiency was impaired to the same degree, and the transpulmonary passage of saline contrast was not different, in humans at rest during the intravenous infusion of adrenaline before and after atropine when breathing room air and 40% O2.
Cardiac output increased to the same degree during intravenous infusion of adrenaline before and after atropine, but pulmonary artery systolic pressure only increased significantly before atropine.
These data demonstrate that blood flow through IPAVAs contributes to pulmonary gas exchange efficiency and that blood flow through IPAVAs is predominantly mediated by increases in cardiac output rather than increases in pulmonary artery systolic pressure.
Blood flow through intrapulmonary arteriovenous anastomoses (IPAVAs) has been demonstrated to increase in healthy humans during a variety of conditions; however, whether or not this blood flow represents a source of venous admixture (Q̇ VA /Q̇T) that impairs pulmonary gas exchange efficiency (i.e. increases the alveolar‐to‐arterial PO2 difference (A–aDO2)) remains controversial and unknown. We hypothesized that blood flow through IPAVAs does provide a source of Q̇ VA /Q̇T. To test this, blood flow through IPAVAs was increased in healthy humans at rest breathing room air and 40% O2: (1) during intravenous adrenaline (epinephrine) infusion at 320 ng kg−1 min−1 (320 ADR), and (2) with vagal blockade (2 mg atropine), before and during intravenous adrenaline infusion at 80 ng kg−1 min−1 (ATR + 80 ADR). When breathing room air the A–aDO2 increased by 6 ± 2 mmHg during 320 ADR and by 5 ± 2 mmHg during ATR + 80 ADR, and the change in calculated Q̇ VA /Q̇T was +2% in both conditions. When breathing 40% O2, which minimizes contributions from diffusion limitation and alveolar ventilation‐to‐perfusion inequality, the A–aDO2 increased by 12 ± 7 mmHg during 320 ADR, and by 9 ± 6 mmHg during ATR + 80 ADR, and the change in calculated Q̇ VA /Q̇T was +2% in both conditions. During 320 ADR cardiac output (Q̇T) and pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) were significantly increased; however, during ATR + 80 ADR only Q̇T was significantly increased, yet blood flow through IPAVAs as detected with saline contrast echocardiography was not different between conditions. Accordingly, we suggest that blood flow through IPAVAs provides a source of intrapulmonary shunt, and is mediated primarily by increases in Q̇T rather than PASP.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Adults with a history of very preterm birth (<32 wk gestational age; PRET) have reduced lung function and significantly lower lung diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) relative to ...individuals born at term (CONT). Low DLCO may predispose PRET to diffusion limitation during exercise, particularly while breathing hypoxic gas because of a reduced O2 driving gradient and pulmonary capillary transit time. We hypothesized that PRET would have significantly worse pulmonary gas exchange efficiency i.e., increased alveolar-to-arterial Po2 difference (AaDO2) during exercise breathing room air or hypoxic gas (FiO2 = 0.12) compared with CONT. To test this hypothesis, we compared the AaDO2 in PRET (n = 13) with a clinically mild reduction in DLCO (72 ± 7% of predicted) and CONT (n = 14) with normal DLCO (105 ± 10% of predicted) pre- and during exercise breathing room air and hypoxic gas. Measurements of temperature-corrected arterial blood gases, and direct measure of O2 saturation (SaO2), were made prior to and during exercise at 25, 50, and 75% of peak oxygen consumption (V̇o2peak) while breathing room air and hypoxic gas. In addition to DLCO, pulmonary function and exercise capacity were significantly less in PRET. Despite PRET having low DLCO, no differences were observed in the AaDO2 or SaO2 pre- or during exercise breathing room air or hypoxic gas compared with CONT. Although our findings were unexpected, we conclude that reduced pulmonary function and low DLCO resulting from very preterm birth does not cause a measureable reduction in pulmonary gas exchange efficiency.
New Findings
What is the central question of this study?
Do individuals with a patent foramen ovale (PFO+) have a larger alveolar‐to‐arterial difference in PO2 (A-aDO2) than those without (PFO−) ...and/or an exaggerated increase in pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) in response to hypoxia?
What is the main finding and its importance?
PFO+ had a greater A-aDO2 while breathing air, 16% and 14% O2, but not 12% or 10% O2. PASP increased equally in hypoxia between PFO+ and PFO−. These data suggest that PFO+ may not have an exaggerated acute increase in PASP in response to hypoxia.
Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is present in 30–40% of the population and is a potential source of right‐to‐left shunt. Accordingly, those with a PFO (PFO+) may have a larger alveolar‐to‐arterial difference in PO2 (A-aDO2) than those without (PFO−) in normoxia and with mild hypoxia. Likewise, PFO is associated with high‐altitude pulmonary oedema, a condition known to have an exaggerated pulmonary pressure response to hypoxia. Thus, PFO+ may also have exaggerated pulmonary pressure increases in response to hypoxia. Therefore, the purposes of the present study were to systematically determine whether or not: (1) the A-aDO2 was greater in PFO+ than in PFO− in normoxia and mild to severe hypoxia and (2) the increase in pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) in response to hypoxia was greater in PFO+ than in PFO−. We measured arterial blood gases and PASP via ultrasound in healthy PFO+ (n = 15) and PFO− (n = 15) humans breathing air and 30 min after breathing four levels of hypoxia (16%, 14%, 12%, 10% O2, randomized and balanced order) at rest. The A-aDO2 was significantly greater in PFO+ compared to PFO− while breathing air (2.1 ± 0.7 vs. 0.4 ± 0.3 Torr), 16% O2 (1.8 ± 1.2 vs. 0.7 ± 0.8 Torr) and 14% O2 (2.3 ± 1.2 vs. 0.7 ± 0.6 Torr), but not 12% or 10% O2. We found no effect of PFO on PASP at any level of hypoxia. We conclude that PFO influences pulmonary gas exchange efficiency with mild hypoxia, but not the acute increase in PASP in response to hypoxia.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
New Findings
What is the central question to this study?
Is there a relationship between a patent foramen ovale and the development of acute mountain sickness and an exaggerated increase in pulmonary ...pressure in response to 7–10 h of normobaric hypoxia?
What is the main finding and its importance?
Patent foramen ovale presence did not increase susceptibility to acute mountain sickness or result in an exaggerated increase in pulmonary artery systolic pressure with normobaric hypoxia. This suggests hypobaric hypoxia is integral to the increased susceptibility to acute mountain sickness previously reported in those with patent foramen ovale, and patent foramen ovale presence alone does not contribute to the hypoxic pulmonary pressor response.
Acute mountain sickness (AMS) develops following rapid ascent to altitude, but its exact causes remain unknown. A patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a right‐to‐left intracardiac shunt present in ∼30% of the population that has been shown to increase AMS susceptibility with high altitude hypoxia. Additionally, high altitude pulmonary oedema (HAPE) is a severe type of altitude illness characterized by an exaggerated pulmonary pressure response, and there is a greater prevalence of PFO in those with a history of HAPE. However, whether hypoxia per se is causing the increased incidence of AMS in those with a PFO and whether a PFO is associated with an exaggerated increase in pulmonary pressure in those without a history of HAPE is unknown. Participants (n = 36) matched for biological sex (18 female) and the presence or absence of a PFO (18 PFO+) were exposed to 7–10 h of normobaric hypoxia equivalent to 4755 m. Presence and severity of AMS was determined using the Lake Louise AMS scoring system. Pulmonary artery systolic pressure, cardiac output and total pulmonary resistance were measured using ultrasound. We found no significant association of PFO with incidence or severity of AMS and no association of PFO with arterial oxygen saturation. Additionally, there was no effect of a PFO on pulmonary pressure, cardiac output or total pulmonary resistance. These data suggest that hypobaric hypoxia is necessary for those with a PFO to have increased incidence of AMS and that presence of PFO is not associated with an exaggerated pulmonary pressor response.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Highlights • Saline contrast echocardiography was performed in 176 healthy, young humans at rest. • 28% of subjects demonstrated the transpulmonary passage of contrast at rest. • 100% O2 and standing ...eliminated transpulmonary passage of contrast in most subjects. • 38% of subjects demonstrated evidence of a patent foramen ovale at rest. • 34% of subjects did not demonstrate left heart contrast at rest.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
Mean pulmonary arterial pressure (Ppa) during exercise is significantly higher in individuals aged ≥50 yr compared with their younger counterparts, but the reasons for this are unknown. Blood flow ...through intrapulmonary arteriovenous anastomoses (IPAVA) can be detected during exercise or while breathing hypoxic gas mixtures using saline contrast echocardiography in almost all healthy young individuals. It has been previously hypothesized that a lower degree of exercise-induced blood flow through IPAVA is associated with high Ppa during exercise. This association may suggest that individuals who are known to have high Ppa during exercise, such as those ≥50 yr of age, may have lower blood flow through IPAVA, but the presence and degree of exercise-induced blood flow through IPAVA has not been specifically studied in older populations. Using transthoracic saline contrast echocardiography, we investigated the potential effects of age on exercise-induced blood flow through IPAVA in a cross-section of subjects aged 19-72 yr. To verify our findings, we assessed the effects of age on hypoxia-induced blood flow through IPAVA. Age groups were ≤41 yr (younger, n = 16) and ≥50 yr (older, n = 14). Qualitatively measured exercise- and hypoxia-induced blood flow through IPAVA was significantly lower in older individuals compared with younger controls. Older individuals also had significantly higher pulmonary arterial systolic pressure and total pulmonary resistance (TPR) during exercise. Low blood flow through IPAVA was independently associated with high TPR. The reasons for the age-related decrease in blood flow through IPAVA are unknown.
Cardiopulmonary function is reduced in adults born very preterm, but it is unknown if this results in reduced pulmonary gas exchange efficiency during exercise and, consequently, leads to reduced ...aerobic capacity in subjects with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). We hypothesized that an excessively large alveolar to arterial oxygen difference (AaDO2) and resulting exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia (EIAH) would contribute to reduced aerobic fitness in adults born very preterm with and without BPD. Measurements of pulmonary function, lung volumes and diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide (DLco) were made at rest. Measurements of maximal oxygen consumption, peak workload, temperature- and tonometry-corrected arterial blood gases, and direct measure of hemoglobin saturation with oxygen (SaO2) were made preexercise and during cycle ergometer exercise in ex-preterm subjects ≤32-wk gestational age, with BPD (n = 12), without BPD (PRE; n = 12), and full term controls (CONT; n = 12) breathing room air. Both BPD and PRE had reduced pulmonary function and reduced DLco compared with CONT. The AaDO2 was not significantly different between groups, and there was no evidence of EIAH (SaO2 < 95% and/or AaDO2 ≥ 40 Torr) in any subject group preexercise or at any workload. Arterial O2 content was not significantly different between the groups preexercise or during exercise. However, peak power output was decreased in BPD and PRE subjects compared with CONT. We conclude that EIAH in adult subjects born very preterm with and without BPD does not likely contribute to the reduction in aerobic exercise capacity observed in these subjects.
Key points
The mechanism(s) that regulate hypoxia‐induced blood flow through intrapulmonary arteriovenous anastomoses (QIPAVA) are currently unknown.
Our previous work has demonstrated that the ...mechanism of hypoxia‐induced QIPAVA is not simply increased cardiac output, pulmonary artery systolic pressure or sympathetic nervous system activity and, instead, it may be a result of hypoxaemia directly.
To determine whether it is reduced arterial PO2 (PaO2) or O2 content (CaO2) that causes hypoxia‐induced QIPAVA, individuals were instructed to breathe room air and three levels of hypoxic gas at rest before (control) and after CaO2 was reduced by 10% by lowering the haemoglobin concentration (isovolaemic haemodilution; Low Hb).
QIPAVA, assessed by transthoracic saline contrast echocardiography, significantly increased as PaO2 decreased and, despite reduced CaO2 (via isovolaemic haemodilution), was similar at iso‐PaO2.
These data suggest that, with alveolar hypoxia, low PaO2 causes the hypoxia‐induced increase in QIPAVA, although where and how this is detected remains unknown.
Alveolar hypoxia causes increased blood flow through intrapulmonary arteriovenous anastomoses (QIPAVA) in healthy humans at rest. However, it is unknown whether the stimulus regulating hypoxia‐induced QIPAVA is decreased arterial PO2 (PaO2) or O2 content (CaO2). CaO2 is known to regulate blood flow in the systemic circulation and it is suggested that IPAVA may be regulated similar to the systemic vasculature. Thus, we hypothesized that reduced CaO2 would be the stimulus for hypoxia‐induced QIPAVA. Blood volume (BV) was measured using the optimized carbon monoxide rebreathing method in 10 individuals. Less than 5 days later, subjects breathed room air, as well as 18%, 14% and 12.5% O2, for 30 min each, in a randomized order, before (CON) and after isovolaemic haemodilution (10% of BV withdrawn and replaced with an equal volume of 5% human serum albumin–saline mixture) to reduce Hb (Low Hb). PaO2 was measured at the end of each condition and QIPAVA was assessed using transthoracic saline contrast echocardiography. Hb was reduced from 14.2 ± 0.8 to 12.8 ± 0.7 g dl−1 (10 ± 2% reduction) from CON to Low Hb conditions. PaO2 was no different between CON and Low Hb, although CaO2 was 10.4%, 9.2% and 9.8% lower at 18%, 14% and 12.5% O2, respectively. QIPAVA significantly increased as PaO2 decreased and, despite reduced CaO2, was similar at iso‐PaO2. These data suggest that, with alveolar hypoxia, low PaO2 causes the hypoxia‐induced increase in QIPAVA. Whether the low PO2 is detected at the carotid body, airway and/or the vasculature remains unknown.
Key points
The mechanism(s) that regulate hypoxia‐induced blood flow through intrapulmonary arteriovenous anastomoses (QIPAVA) are currently unknown.
Our previous work has demonstrated that the mechanism of hypoxia‐induced QIPAVA is not simply increased cardiac output, pulmonary artery systolic pressure or sympathetic nervous system activity and, instead, it may be a result of hypoxaemia directly.
To determine whether it is reduced arterial PO2 (PaO2) or O2 content (CaO2) that causes hypoxia‐induced QIPAVA, individuals were instructed to breathe room air and three levels of hypoxic gas at rest before (control) and after CaO2 was reduced by 10% by lowering the haemoglobin concentration (isovolaemic haemodilution; Low Hb).
QIPAVA, assessed by transthoracic saline contrast echocardiography, significantly increased as PaO2 decreased and, despite reduced CaO2 (via isovolaemic haemodilution), was similar at iso‐PaO2.
These data suggest that, with alveolar hypoxia, low PaO2 causes the hypoxia‐induced increase in QIPAVA, although where and how this is detected remains unknown.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Skeletal muscle vasodilatation persists following a single bout of exercise and can potentially influence glucose uptake by recovering muscle. To investigate whether blood flow is a rate‐limiting ...component in postexercise muscle glucose uptake, we tested the hypothesis that oral ingestion of H1‐ and H2‐receptor antagonists, known to attenuate the sustained postexercise vasodilatation, would reduce leg glucose uptake after a bout of cycling. Healthy, recreationally active subjects (n= 8) exercised for 1 h at 60% of peak oxygen consumption on each of two days, with (blockade) and without (control) histamine‐receptor antagonism. For 2 h of recovery following exercise, arteriovenous glucose differences were assessed from the radial artery and femoral vein, and leg blood flow was measured using Doppler ultrasonography on the common femoral artery. Femoral blood flow following exercise was 65.4 ± 16.4 ml min−1 lower on the blockade day compared with the control day (P < 0.05). Likewise, glucose delivery was 0.177 ± 0.045 mmol min−1 lower with blockade (P < 0.05). However, histamine‐receptor antagonism produced no consistent effect on leg glucose uptake following exercise, due to high interindividual variability. In conclusion, while oral ingestion of H1‐ and H2‐receptor antagonists alters postexercise recovery by attenuating vasodilatation, leg glucose uptake is not universally affected in recreationally active individuals.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
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