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•Reproducible in vitro digestibility workflow based on the INFOGEST protocol.•In vitro workflow for protein digestibility and DIAAS validated with in vivo data.•High correlation ...between in vitro and in vivo digestibility (r = 0.6, P < 0.0001)•Good agreement of in vitro DIAAR with in vivo values (r = 0.96, P < 0.0001)•In vitro protocol suited for protein quality assessment.
The FAO recommends the digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) to determine protein quality in foods, preferably tested in vivo. Here, the INFOGESTin vitrodigestion protocol was applied and supplemented with an analytical workflow allowing the assessment of protein digestibility and DIAAS calculation. The protocol was applied to selected samples WPI, zein, collagen, black beans, pigeon peas, All-Bran®, and peanuts. The total protein digestibility, digestibility of individual amino acids (AA), and DIAAS values were established and compared with in vivo data for the same substrates. Total protein digestibility (total Nitrogen, r = 0.7, P < 0.05; primary amines (OPA), r = 0.6, P < 0.02; total AA, r = 0.6, P < 0.02) and digestibility of individual AA (r = 0.6, P < 0.0001) were in good agreement, between in vitro and in vivo, with a mean difference of 1.2 %. In vitro DIAAS was highly correlated with DIAAS obtained from in vivo true ileal digestibility values (r = 0.96, R2 = 0.89, P < 0.0001) with a mean difference of 0.1 %.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
When assessing protein quality, a correction needs to be made to take into consideration the availability of the amino acids. This correction is based on the digestibility of the amino acids. It is ...recommended to use ileal (end of small intestine) digestibility as opposed to faecal digestibility. A correction needs to be made for endogenous (gut sourced as opposed to diet sourced) amino acids to give true digestibility as opposed to apparent digestibility. Also, this correction should be made by correcting the amino acid composition for individual amino acid digestibilities as opposed to correcting all amino acids for nitrogen digestibility. Determination of true ileal amino acid digestibility requires the collection of ileal digesta. In the human there are two methods that can be used; naso-ileal intubation and using the ileostomy model. Both are discussed in detail and it is concluded that both are appropriate methods to collect ileal digesta.
Objective:
Increasing evidence suggests that inflammation and immune dysregulation play an important role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder. Because the brain can be affected by various ...autoimmune processes, it is possible that some psychiatric disorders may have an autoimmune basis.
Method:
This article reviews the literature on peripheral and central immune dysregulation and autoimmunity in bipolar disorder. The mechanisms of the innate and adaptive immune systems in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder are explored. The clinical features and pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus, anti-NMDA encephalitis, and Hashimoto’s encephalopathy are summarized.
Results:
Neuroinflammation and peripheral immune dysregulation may play a role in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. This involves a complex interaction between immune cells of the central nervous system and periphery resulting in cellular damage through mechanisms involving excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus, anti-NMDA encephalitis, and Hashimoto’s encephalopathy are important differentials for a psychiatrist to consider when suspecting autoimmune encephalopathy.
Conclusions:
The link between immune dysregulation, autoimmunity, and bipolar disorder may be closer than previously thought. Psychiatrists should be vigilant for autoimmunity in presentations of bipolar disorder due to its high morbidity and therapeutic implications. Advances in neuroimaging and biomarker identification related to immune dysregulation and neuroinflammation will contribute to our knowledge of the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder.
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NUK, OILJ, SAZU, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
Resting and activated subpopulations of CD4
CD25
CD127
T regulatory cells (Treg) and CD4
CD25
CD127
effector T cells in MS patients and in healthy individuals were compared. Peripheral blood ...mononuclear cells isolated using Ficoll Hypaque were stained with monoclonal antibodies and analysed by flow cytometer. CD45RA and Foxp3 expression within CD4
cells and in CD4
CD25
CD127
T cells identified Population I; CD45RA
Foxp3
, Population II; CD45RA
Foxp3
and Population III; CD45RA
Foxp3
cells. Effector CD4
CD127
T cells were subdivided into Population IV; memory /effector CD45RA
CD25
Foxp3
and Population V; effector naïve CD45RA
CD25
Foxp3
CCR7
and terminally differentiated RA
(TEMRA) effector memory cells. Chemokine receptor staining identified CXCR3
Th1-like Treg, CCR6
Th17-like Treg and CCR7
resting Treg. Resting Treg (Population I) were reduced in MS patients, both in untreated and treated MS compared to healthy donors. Activated/memory Treg (Population II) were significantly increased in MS patients compared to healthy donors. Activated effector CD4
(Population IV) were increased and the naïve/ TEMRA CD4
(Population V) were decreased in MS compared to HD. Expression of CCR7 was mainly in Population I, whereas expression of CCR6 and CXCR3 was greatest in Populations II and intermediate in Population III. In MS, CCR6
Treg were lower in Population III. This study found MS is associated with significant shifts in CD4
T cells subpopulations. MS patients had lower resting CD4
CD25
CD45RA
CCR7
Treg than healthy donors while activated CD4
CD25
CD45RA
Foxp3
Treg were increased in MS patients even before treatment. Some MS patients had reduced CCR6
Th17-like Treg, which may contribute to the activity of MS.
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IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, UL, UM, UPUK
This study investigated the structural and physicochemical changes that occur in milk, a naturally designed complex structured emulsion, during gastric digestion using the bottle-fed piglet as an ...animal model. The gastric digestions of cow, goat, and sheep milk were compared in male piglets euthanized at different postfeeding times to collect the stomach chyme. The cow and noncow milks separated into curd (aggregated caseins) and liquid (mostly soluble whey) phases in the piglet's stomach. For milk from all the species, the curd remained longer in the stomach because of its slow disintegration, whereas the liquid phase emptied readily. The majority of the fat globules were found to be entrapped within the protein network of the curd. The rate of release of fat globules was strongly dependent on the breakdown of the surrounding protein network of the curd. The consistency of the gastric curds changed as digestion progressed, with goat and sheep milk curds having relatively softer curd consistency and less fused protein networks, especially toward the end of digestion. This might have led to the lower protein and fat retention in the goat and sheep milk curds and relatively faster gastric emptying of these nutrients from goat and sheep milk in comparison to cow milk. This in vivo study provided new and enhanced understanding of the mechanisms of the gastric digestion of milk from different species. It may have implications for developing bioinspired structures for the controlled digestion and delivery of nutrients.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
When foods are subjected to heat and pressure, a proportion of lysine is structurally altered and some will revert to lysine because of acid hydrolysis during amino acid analysis. Altered lysine ...molecules may be partly absorbed but are not utilized post-absorption.
A guanidination-based bioassay has been developed to determine true ileal digestible reactive lysine but it was only used in animal models (pig and rat). The objective of this study was to apply the assay and determine whether there is a difference between true ileal digestible total lysine and true ileal digestible reactive lysine in adult human ileostomates.
Six cooked or processed foods were analyzed for total lysine and reactive lysine. Six adults with a fully functioning ileostomy (4 women and 2 men; age range: 41–70 y; BMI: 20.8–28.1) participated. Foods for which total lysine > reactive lysine (cooked black beans, toasted wheat bread, and processed wheat bran), as well as a protein-free diet, were consumed by the ileostomates (n = 5 to 8; test food meals contained 25 g protein) and ileal digesta was collected. Each food was ingested twice by each participant, and the digesta was pooled. The order of foods for each participant was determined according to a Youden square. True ileal digestible total lysine and true ileal digestible reactive lysine were determined and a 2-way ANOVA model was used to analyze data.
True ileal digestible reactive lysine was significantly lower than true ileal digestible total lysine for cooked black beans, toasted wheat bread, and processed wheat bran by 89%, 55%, and 85%, respectively (P< 0.05).
True ileal digestible reactive lysine was lower than true ileal digestible total lysine, similar to that previously reported in pigs and rats, demonstrating the importance of determining the true ileal digestible reactive lysine contents of processed foods.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
This study evaluated the importance of a correction for amino acids (AA) released into the hindgut on a measure of AA absorption kinetics and tested whether AA absorption kinetics are related to the ...extent of AA absorption using the growing pig as a model for humans. Thirty-six nine-week-old pigs (22·3 kg) received a diet containing whey protein as the sole protein source for 8 d. Pigs received their last meal containing the indigestible marker titanium dioxide before being euthanised at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 h post-feeding. The entire content of each gastrointestinal tract (GIT) region was collected to determine AA released into the hindgut, and the kinetics and extent of AA absorption (uncorrected and corrected for AA entering the hindgut). Amounts of AA released into the hindgut increased over time (e.g. 33 and 180 mg of Glu for 4 and 6 h post-feeding). The corrected apparent amount of each AA absorbed from the GIT lumen after 4 h post-feeding was generally lower (P ≤ 0·05) than the uncorrected counterpart. Differences in both the kinetics and extent of AA absorption were observed across AA. For example, the time to reach half of the apparent AA absorption (T50) was 1·5 and 3·4 h for Met and Arg, respectively, whereas their extent of apparent absorption was 93 and 73 %. Negative correlations between parameters related to kinetics and the extent of apparent absorption were observed (e.g. for T50 r = −0·81; P < 0·001). The kinetics of AA absorption is related to the extent of AA absorption.
Cooking processes affect the physical, chemical, and structural properties of meat proteins. Cooking may also affect the protein quality of meat, as indicated by the true ileal digestibility of ...individual amino acids, the content of each truly digestible amino acid, and the digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS).
The study aimed to determine the effect of the cooking process (raw, not cooked; boiled; grilled; pan-fried; roasted) of beef on true (standardized) ileal amino acid digestibility, true ileal digestible amino acid content, and DIAAS.
Beef topside steak was subjected to one of the following conditions: raw, boiled, grilled, pan-fried, or roasted, followed by mincing. The growing pig was used as an animal model for the adult human. Diets containing the raw or cooked meats (10% crude protein content) were fed to growing pigs (n= 6 per diet; mean ± SEM bodyweight, 23.6 ± 0.48 kg) and samples of terminal ileal digesta were collected under anesthesia. True ileal amino acid digestibility of the beef was determined and DIAAS values were calculated.
There were only minor differences in true ileal amino acid digestibility across cooking conditions with all amino acids having true ileal amino acid digestibility in the range of 90–100%. In general, boiled meat had the highest true ileal digestible amino acid content (total of 724 g/kg dry matter), and roasted meat the lowest (total of 641 g/kg dry matter; P< 0.001). The DIAAS was greater (P< 0.001) for the raw, boiled, and pan-fried meat treatments (97–99%) than for roasted meat (91%) or grilled meat (80%). The high DIAAS (range 80–99%) across cooking conditions confirms that bovine meat is a high-quality protein source.
Conclusion: Cooking conditions affect the true ileal digestible amino acid content and DIAAS of beef, as determined with the use of the pig model.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Advancing sustainable diets for nutrition security and sustainable development necessitates clear nutrition metrics for measuring nutritional quality of diets. Food composition, nutrient ...requirements, and dietary intake are among the most common nutrition metrics used in the current assessment of sustainable diets. Broadly, most studies in the area classify animal-source foods (ASF) as having a substantially higher environmental footprint in comparison to plant-source foods (PSF). As a result, much of the current dietary advice promulgates diets containing higher proportions of PSF. However, this generalization is misleading since most of these studies do not distinguish between the gross and bioavailable nutrient fractions in mixed human diets. The bioavailability of essential nutrients including β-carotene, vitamin B-12, iron, zinc, calcium, and indispensable amino acids varies greatly across different diets. The failure to consider bioavailability in sustainability measurements undermines the complementary role that ASF play in achieving nutrition security in vulnerable populations. This article critically reviews the scientific evidence on the holistic nutritional quality of diets and identifies methodological problems that exist in the way the nutritional quality of diets is measured. Finally, we discuss the importance of developing nutrient bioavailability as a requisite nutrition metric to contextualize the environmental impacts of different diets.
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BFBNIB, GIS, IJS, KISLJ, NUK, PNG, UL, UM, UPUK
Digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) has been recommended by the FAO for the evaluation of protein quality in human foods, but the application of DIAAS is currently limited because of a ...lack of published data on the true ileal amino acid (AA) digestibility of AAs in foods. The importance of DIAAS is highlighted. To calculate DIAAS, it is necessary to determine the true ileal AA digestibility of human foods using the growing pig as an animal model for the human based on previous FAO recommendations. A method is described in detail in Supplemental Methods to determine the true ileal AA digestibility of foods for humans using the pig as a model for the adult human. Adoption of the method will enable consistency in the development of databases on predicted true ileal AA digestibility in human foods for the calculation of DIAAS.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
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