In this study, ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and aluminum hydroxide (ALH) with different mass contents were used as fire retardants (FRs) on plant-based natural flax fabric-reinforced polymer (FFRP) ...composites. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), limited oxygen index (LOI), and the Underwriters Laboratories (UL)-94 horizontal and vertical tests were carried out for evaluating the effectiveness of these FR treatments. Flat-coupon tensile test was performed to evaluate the effects of FR treatment on the mechanical properties of the FFRP composites. For both fire retardants, the results showed that the temperature of the thermal decomposition and the LOI values of the composites increased as the FR content increases. Under the UL-94 vertical test, the FFRP composites with 20% and 30% APP (i.e., by mass content of epoxy polymer matrix) were self-extinguished within 30 and 10 s following the removal of the flame without any burning drops, respectively. However, the mechanical tensile tests showed that the APP treated FFRP composites reduced their elastic modulus and strength up to 24% and 18%, respectively. Scanning electronic microscopic (SEM) for morphology examination showed an effective coating of the flax fibres with the FRs, which improved the flame retardancy of the treated composites.
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IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, UL, UM, UPUK
The fire performance of epoxy and carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites with and without fire retardants (FR) (i.e., ammonium polyphosphate (APP), aluminum trihydroxide (ATH), melamine ...(MEL), expandable graphite (EG)) was investigated. A design of experiment (DoE) approach was applied to study the single- and multifactorial effects of FR. The fire performance of epoxy and CFRP was evaluated by limiting the oxygen index (LOI) and heat release, which were obtained by limiting the oxygen index test and cone calorimetry. It was found that mixtures of 70 wt.-% epoxy, 24.6 wt.-% of APP, and 5.4 wt.-% MEL resulted in the highest LOI level of 45 within tested groups for epoxy resin and also for CFRP specimens (LOI level of 39). This mixture also resulted in the lowest average heat release rate (HRR180s) of 104 kW·m−2 and a spec. total heat release (THR600s) of 1.14 MJ·m−2·g−1, indicating the importance of balancing spumific and charring agents in intumescent systems and synergy thereof.
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Wood fiber insulation boards, as many other wooden materials, are susceptible to smolder. This type of slow and flameless thermal degradation has three upmost important drawbacks. First, smoldering ...can develop unseen until damages are noticed; second, it does not need any external heat to keep progressing, thus behaving as a self-sustaining process; third, it may shift into flaming combustion. Although wooden insulation materials are very competitive as insulators, its use is not permitted in several countries beyond mid-rise buildings due to smoldering hazard. As measuring of physical parameters is difficult and expensive at high temperatures, the objective of this investigation was to develop a theoretical model that comprises most relevant physical phenomena in order to serve as a supportive tool for further development of fire-retardant substances. The constructed model presents the novelty that it can simulate the self-sustaining smoldering without needing any external radiation heat, but only the self-heating generated by its own exothermic reactions. The model was built based on a program of experimental testing that included thermo-gravimetric analyses and differential-scanning calorimetry, being able to predict particle degradation at different heating rates and oxygen concentrations with errors of about 7,5 %. The adequacy of the model was also compared at the structural scale against a non-standard cone calorimeter test with terminal switching off heat radiation to emulate self-sustaining smoldering, which was used as model validation showing fits of about 23 % in consideration of mass loss, mass-loss rate and temperature profile. A comprehensive sensitivity analysis comprising 60 distinct parameters permitted to thoroughly assess the influence of each model input parameter, which is being presented as a ranking from the most to the less influencing parameters that prevent or foster self-sustaining smoldering. Several unexpected conclusions raised, positioning species’ densities, capacities and reaction activation energies as the most important parameters. To the best knowledge of the authors, this is the first model that can simulate the self-sustaining smoldering of wooden insulation materials, so it is expected to contribute on further development of fire retardant compounds for wooden products.
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The catalytic conversion of methane and carbon dioxide was studied in a fluidized bed reactor supported by a 13.56 Hz driven coaxial DBD-reactor. Palladium or cupper catalyst which are covered on Al
...2
O
3
particles were used. The goal was to test whether biogas can be used for the production of synthesis gas. The influences of discharge power, catalysts and temperature of the catalyst bed on the product yield were studied. The starting material and product stream was analyzed by quadrupole mass spectrometry and infrared spectroscopy. H
2
/CO ratios can be adjusted in a range between 0.65 (without a catalyst) and 1.75 (using a copper catalyst). The process is highly selective for hydrogen production (up to 83%, using a Palladium catalyst). A copper catalyst increases the H
2
/CO ratio can from 1.04 to 1.16 and the palladium catalyst from 1.11 to 1.43 by heating the catalyst to a temperature of 250°C.
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EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
Summary
Obviously, the use of insulation materials from renewable resources in buildings could provide benefits regarding environmental protection and sustainable management. Nevertheless, their ...market share in Germany is estimated to be about 7% because of a partial lack of knowledge about their properties, and therefore, of construction certifications. This work was intended to close a knowledge gap concerning emissions during pyrolysis, smoldering, and combustion of commercial insulating materials made from wood, cellulose, meadow grass, hemp, jute, cork, and seaweed as well as polystyrene for comparison reasons. Laboratory‐scale experiments were conducted and the measurement of thermal decomposition products was done with gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). It was realized that almost all the products could be assigned to the following eight substance classes: carbohydrates, aldehydes/ketones, carbonic acids/esters, substituted phenols, furans, aliphatic hydrocarbons, substituted benzenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Substance spectra were generated that showed certain conformities, especially between the insulating materials made from wood, cellulose, and meadow grass as well as hemp and jute. Comparisons of the sum of peak areas in the GC/MS‐chromatograms provided indications of the relative extent of thermal decomposition product emissions. Calculations according to (∑peak areas renewable material)/(∑peak areas polystyrene) revealed factors between 0.18 (wood, cork) and 0.028 (meadow grass). In the thermal emissions, defined hazardous substances or substance groups were frequently measured. These were included in a toxicity evaluation by which, inter alia, advantages of the natural products compared to polystyrene could be demonstrated.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Im Forschungsvorhaben „Mehr als nur Dämmung – Zusatznutzen von Dämmstoffen aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen” wurde in mehreren Teilprojekten der Feuchte‐, Wärme‐, Schall‐ und Brandschutz sowie die ...Nachhaltigkeit und Emissionswirkung von Dämmstoffen aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen (nawaRo‐Dämmstoffe) untersucht. Das übergeordnete, primäre Ziel des Forschungsverbundes war es, die Anwendbarkeit von nawaRo‐Dämmstoffen signifikant zu erhöhen und Anwendungshemmnisse auszuräumen. Im Arbeitsbereich Brandschutz und Glimmverhalten wurde das Schwelen, Glimmen und Brennen der nawaRo‐Dämmstoffe analysiert und Anwendungsgrenzen im Rahmen des mehrgeschossigen Bauens definiert. Der vorliegende Aufsatz behandelt die experimentellen Untersuchungen zum Auslösen, Verlauf und Löschverhalten von Schwelprozessen in nawaRo‐Dämmstoffen, der Wirkung von Flammschutzmitteln und denen im Zersetzungsprozess freigesetzten Emissionen. In einem folgenden Aufsatz wird die bautechnische Verwendung von nawaRo‐Dämmstoffen, anstelle der bisher geforderten nichtbrennbaren Dämmung, im Gefach von Holztafelbauweisen dargestellt.
Fire performance of insulating materials made from renewable resources – Part 1: Experimental investigations of smouldering processes and emissions
In the research project ”more than just insulation – additional benefits of insulating materials made from renewable resources“, several sub‐projects investigated the moisture protection, thermal protection, noise insulation and fire protection as well as the sustainability and emission effect of insulating materials made from renewable resources. The primary goal of the research network was to significantly increase the applicability of renewable insulating materials and to eliminate obstacles to their use. In the field of fire protection behavior, the smoldering and burning of renewable insulation materials was analyzed and application limits defined in the context of multi‐storey buildings. The presented article deals with the experimental investigations on initiation, process and extinguishing behavior of smoldering, the effect of flame retardants and the emissions released in the combustion process. In the following article, the structural use of renewable insulation materials, instead of the previously required non‐combustible insulation, is presented in the context of wood panel construction.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Abstract
Im Forschungsvorhaben „Mehr als nur Dämmung – Zusatznutzen von Dämmstoffen aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen” wurde in mehreren Teilprojekten der Feuchte‐, Wärme‐, Schall‐ und Brandschutz sowie ...die Nachhaltigkeit und Emissionswirkung von Dämmstoffen aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen (nawaRo‐Dämmstoffe) untersucht. Das übergeordnete, primäre Ziel des Forschungsverbundes war es, die Anwendbarkeit von nawaRo‐Dämmstoffen signifikant zu erhöhen und Anwendungshemmnisse auszuräumen. Im Arbeitsbereich Brandschutz und Glimmverhalten wurde das Schwelen, Glimmen und Brennen der nawaRo‐Dämmstoffe analysiert und Anwendungsgrenzen im Rahmen des mehrgeschossigen Bauens definiert. Der vorliegende Aufsatz behandelt die experimentellen Untersuchungen zum Auslösen, Verlauf und Löschverhalten von Schwelprozessen in nawaRo‐Dämmstoffen, der Wirkung von Flammschutzmitteln und denen im Zersetzungsprozess freigesetzten Emissionen. In einem folgenden Aufsatz wird die bautechnische Verwendung von nawaRo‐Dämmstoffen, anstelle der bisher geforderten nichtbrennbaren Dämmung, im Gefach von Holztafelbauweisen dargestellt.
Abstract
Fire performance of insulating materials made from renewable resources – Part 1: Experimental investigations of smouldering processes and emissions
In the research project ”more than just insulation – additional benefits of insulating materials made from renewable resources“, several sub‐projects investigated the moisture protection, thermal protection, noise insulation and fire protection as well as the sustainability and emission effect of insulating materials made from renewable resources. The primary goal of the research network was to significantly increase the applicability of renewable insulating materials and to eliminate obstacles to their use. In the field of fire protection behavior, the smoldering and burning of renewable insulation materials was analyzed and application limits defined in the context of multi‐storey buildings. The presented article deals with the experimental investigations on initiation, process and extinguishing behavior of smoldering, the effect of flame retardants and the emissions released in the combustion process. In the following article, the structural use of renewable insulation materials, instead of the previously required non‐combustible insulation, is presented in the context of wood panel construction.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
An experimental and numerical investigation was conducted to characterize the influence of the cellulosic substrate used to assess the ignition propensity (IP) of cigarettes. Such an IP test is ...currently prescribed by the ISO 12863 standard and its results typically show poor repeatability. It is believed that such a low reproducibility is mainly due to the variability of the cigarette itself but it is unclear as to what extent the substrate also influences the variability of the test results. Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to analyze the potential influence of the substrate by first characterizing the thermodynamic behavior experimentally and then constructing a numerical model that can quantify the relative influence of the distinct parameters. A suite of experimental methods that included TGA, DSC, infrared measurements and laser triangulation among others was used to measure the thermophysical properties of the substrate. These properties were then used to build a CFD model that simulated the smoldering combustion experienced by the substrate during the IP test. After validating the model against contactless temperature measurements, a parametric study consisting of 363 IP simulations was performed, which served to quantify the relative importance of 13 thermophysical parameters when varying in ranges of about 5%–50%. The results indicated that the heat capacity, pyrolysis activation energy, and air gap thickness are the most influencing aspects of the substrate because they influence the heat absorbed by the substrate about 7%, 26% and 33%, respectively. The latter parameter was found to significantly vary with each test and its influence was comparable to that of some major properties of the cigarette such as the cigarette’s temperature and burning rate. It is therefore postulated that the variability of the substrate itself plays an important role on the poor repeatability of the test and it may comprise its reliability.
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