Over the past two decades, sea level trends have increased in the western tropical Pacific Ocean with rates that are approximately three times the global average. A general circulation model is used ...to show that the high rates are caused by a gradual intensification of Pacific trade winds since the early 1990s. The modeled sea level change captures the spatial trend pattern in satellite altimeter sea surface heights and the temporal trend shift in tide gauge observations. In addition to the sea level response, the model is used to show how other aspects of the ocean circulation have increased appreciably in amplitude as a consequence of the trade wind intensification, including tropical surface currents, the shallow meridional over‐turning circulation, the Equatorial Undercurrent, and the Indonesian Throughflow. These results highlight an ongoing shift in the state of the tropical Pacific Ocean that will continue as long as the trade wind trend persists.
Key Points
Trade wind intensification drives regional sea level change
The intensification leads to broad changes in the Pacific circulation
The modeling study focuses attention on the need for wind product validation
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
This study provides an overview of the coupled high‐resolution Version 1 of the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SMv1) and documents the characteristics of a 50‐year‐long high‐resolution control ...simulation with time‐invariant 1950 forcings following the HighResMIP protocol. In terms of global root‐mean‐squared error metrics, this high‐resolution simulation is generally superior to results from the low‐resolution configuration of E3SMv1 (due to resolution, tuning changes, and possibly initialization procedure) and compares favorably to models in the CMIP5 ensemble. Ocean and sea ice simulation is particularly improved, due to better resolution of bathymetry, the ability to capture more variability and extremes in winds and currents, and the ability to resolve mesoscale ocean eddies. The largest improvement in this regard is an ice‐free Labrador Sea, which is a major problem at low resolution. Interestingly, several features found to improve with resolution in previous studies are insensitive to resolution or even degrade in E3SMv1. Most notable in this regard are warm bias and associated stratocumulus deficiency in eastern subtropical oceans and lack of improvement in El Niño. Another major finding of this study is that resolution increase had negligible impact on climate sensitivity (measured by net feedback determined through uniform +4K prescribed sea surface temperature increase) and aerosol sensitivity. Cloud response to resolution increase consisted of very minor decrease at all levels. Large‐scale patterns of precipitation bias were also relatively unaffected by grid spacing.
Plain Language Summary
The Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) is a relatively new fully coupled Earth system and climate model used in major international model simulation projects and mission‐defined efforts for the U.S. Department of Energy. This paper describes the first simulation of the model in its high‐resolution configuration. This higher‐resolution version is able to capture the most energetic motions in the ocean, which are poorly represented in standard resolution coupled climate models, as well as the largest of storms in the atmosphere. Evaluation of this simulation confirms the benefits of high resolution found by other models with a few notable exceptions. These discrepancies with other studies are interesting because they provide a richer understanding of how and why resolution affects model bias. Another key finding is that climate and aerosol sensitivity in E3SM is unaffected by resolution change. This affirms the usefulness of coarser‐resolution models for understanding global‐scale climate change. This study also confirms the benefits of increased resolution for studying fine‐scale features such as hurricanes and orographic precipitation. Finally, the high‐resolution version of E3SM is shown to compare favorably to its low‐resolution counterpart and to the models participating in Phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project.
Key Points
The high‐resolution E3SMv1 model was run for 50 years using 1950 forcing data according to the HighResMIP protocol
Higher resolution and associated retuning improved bias relative to coarser versions of E3SMv1, particularly in ocean and sea ice metrics
Aerosol and climate sensitivity were relatively unaffected by resolution change; resolution‐related tuning had a larger impact
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•We describe an Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian vertical coordinate method for the MPAS-Ocean model.•MPAS-Ocean was validated using z-level, z-star (full and partial bottom cells), z-tilde, isopycnal, ...and sigma coordinates.•Mixing rates of MPAS-Ocean are commensurate with well-established ocean models.•The frequency-filtered scheme (z-tilde) reduces spurious mixing caused by internal waves.
The vertical coordinate of the Model for Prediction Across Scales-Ocean (MPAS-Ocean) uses the Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) method, which offers a variety of configurations. When fully Eulerian, the vertical coordinate is fixed like a z-level ocean model; when fully Lagrangian there is no vertical transport through the interfaces so that the mesh moves with the fluid; additional options for vertical coordinates exist between these two extremes, including z-star, z-tilde, sigma, and isopycnal coordinates. Here we evaluate spurious diapycnal mixing in MPAS-Ocean in several idealized test cases as well as real-world domains with full bathymetry. Mixing data is compared to several other ocean models, including the Parallel Ocean Program (POP) z-level and z-star formulations. In three-dimensional domains, MPAS-Ocean has lower spurious mixing that other ocean models. A series of simulations show that this is likely due to MPAS-Ocean’s hexagon-type horizontal grid cells combined with a flux-corrected transport tracer advection scheme designed for these unstructured meshes.
The frequency-filtered vertical coordinate of Leclair and Madec (2011) (also called z-tilde) has been implemented and analyzed in MPAS-Ocean. This addition allows low-frequency vertical transport to pass through the vertical interface in an Eulerian manner, while high-frequency vertical oscillations, such as internal gravity waves, are treated in a Lagrangian manner. Z-tilde leads to a substantial reduction in vertical transport across layer interfaces, and a reduction in spurious diapycnal mixing.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
We present the analysis of global sympagic primary production (PP) from 300 years of pre-industrial and historical simulations of the E3SMv1.1-BGC model. The model includes a novel, eight-element sea ...ice biogeochemical component, MPAS-Seaice zbgc, which is resolved in three spatial dimensions and uses a vertical transport scheme based on internal brine dynamics. Modeled ice algal chlorophyll-a concentrations and column-integrated values are broadly consistent with observations, though chl-a profile fractions indicate that upper ice communities of the Southern Ocean are underestimated. Simulations of polar integrated sea ice PP support the lower bound in published estimates for both polar regions with mean Arctic values of 7.5 and 15.5 TgC/a in the Southern Ocean. However, comparisons of the polar climate state with observations, using a maximal bound for ice algal growth rates, suggest that the Arctic lower bound is a significant underestimation driven by biases in ocean surface nitrate, and that correction of these biases supports as much as 60.7 TgC/a of net Arctic PP. Simulated Southern Ocean sympagic PP is predominantly light-limited, and regional patterns, particularly in the coastal high production band, are found to be negatively correlated with snow thickness.
The Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) is a new coupled Earth system model sponsored by the U.S Department of Energy. Here we present E3SM global simulations using active ocean and sea ice ...that are driven by the Coordinated Ocean‐ice Reference Experiments II (CORE‐II) interannual atmospheric forcing data set. The E3SM ocean and sea ice components are MPAS‐Ocean and MPAS‐Seaice, which use the Model for Prediction Across Scales (MPAS) framework and run on unstructured horizontal meshes. For this study, grid cells vary from 30 to 60 km for the low‐resolution mesh and 6 to 18 km at high resolution. The vertical grid is a structured z‐star coordinate and uses 60 and 80 layers for low and high resolution, respectively. The lower‐resolution simulation was run for five CORE cycles (310 years) with little drift in sea surface temperature (SST) or heat content. The meridional heat transport (MHT) is within observational range, while the meridional overturning circulation at 26.5°N is low compared to observations. The largest temperature biases occur in the Labrador Sea and western boundary currents (WBCs), and the mixed layer is deeper than observations at northern high latitudes in the winter months. In the Antarctic, maximum mixed layer depths (MLD) compare well with observations, but the spatial MLD pattern is shifted relative to observations. Sea ice extent, volume, and concentration agree well with observations. At high resolution, the sea surface height compares well with satellite observations in mean and variability.
Key Points
The Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) is a new climate model by the U.S. Department of Energy
E3SM ocean and ice components use unstructured horizontal meshes for variable‐resolution simulations
The 310‐year E3SM simulations agree well with observations in ocean currents and sea ice coverage
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Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), primarily produced by marine organisms, contributes significantly to sulfate aerosol loading over the ocean after being oxidized in the atmosphere. In addition to exerting a ...direct radiative effect, the resulting aerosol particles act as cloud condensation nuclei, modulating cloud properties and extent, with impacts on atmospheric radiative transfer and climate. Thus, changes in pelagic ecosystems, such as phytoplankton physiology and community structure, may influence organosulfur production, and subsequently affect climate via the sulfur cycle. A fully coupled Earth system model, including explicit marine ecosystems and the sulfur cycle, is used here to investigate the impacts of changes associated with individual phytoplankton groups on DMS emissions and climate. Simulations show that changes in phytoplankton community structure, DMS production efficiency, and interactions of multielement biogeochemical cycles can all lead to significant differences in DMS transfer to the atmosphere. Subsequent changes in sulfate aerosol burden, cloud condensation nuclei number, and radiative effect are examined. We find the global annual mean cloud radiative effect shifts up to 0.21 W/m2, and the mean surface temperature increases up to 0.1 °C due to DMS production changes associated with individual phytoplankton group in simulations with radiative effects at the 2,100 levels under an 8.5 scenario. However, changes in DMS emissions, radiative effect, and surface temperature are more intensive on regional scales. Hence, we speculate that major uncertainties associated with future marine sulfur cycling will involve strong region‐to‐region climate shifts. Further understanding of marine ecosystems and the relevant phytoplankton‐aerosol‐climate linkage are needed for improving climate projections.
Key Points
Phytoplankton community composition shifts in response to climate change
Changes in phytoplankton community composition may have significant impacts on DMS emissions
Individual phytoplankton functional groups may affect climate via the sulfur cycle
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Abstract
Isopycnal diffusivity due to stirring by mesoscale eddies in an idealized, wind-forced, eddying, midlatitude ocean basin is computed using Lagrangian, in Situ, Global, High-Performance ...Particle Tracking (LIGHT). Simulation is performed via LIGHT within the Model for Prediction across Scales Ocean (MPAS-O). Simulations are performed at 4-, 8-, 16-, and 32-km resolution, where the first Rossby radius of deformation (RRD) is approximately 30 km. Scalar and tensor diffusivities are estimated at each resolution based on 30 ensemble members using particle cluster statistics. Each ensemble member is composed of 303 665 particles distributed across five potential density surfaces. Diffusivity dependence upon model resolution, velocity spatial scale, and buoyancy surface is quantified and compared with mixing length theory. The spatial structure of diffusivity ranges over approximately two orders of magnitude with values of
O
(10
5
) m
2
s
−1
in the region of western boundary current separation to
O
(10
3
) m
2
s
−1
in the eastern region of the basin. Dominant mixing occurs at scales twice the size of the first RRD. Model resolution at scales finer than the RRD is necessary to obtain sufficient model fidelity at scales between one and four RRD to accurately represent mixing. Mixing length scaling with eddy kinetic energy and the Lagrangian time scale yield mixing efficiencies that typically range between 0.4 and 0.8. A reduced mixing length in the eastern region of the domain relative to the west suggests there are different mixing regimes outside the baroclinic jet region.
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► Presenting a new fine-resolution Community Climate System Model (CCSM) simulation. ► Components resolutions are 0.1° ocean and ice, and 0.25° atmosphere and land. ► Category 4 cyclones formed ...spontaneously in the CCSM tropical North Pacific. ► Atmosphere-ocean feedbacks produced realistic Agulhas eddy tracks. ► SSTs were too cold in the subpolar and mid-latitude Northern Hemisphere.
A fully coupled global simulation using the Community Climate System Model (CCSM) was configured using grid resolutions of 0.1° for the ocean and sea-ice, and 0.25° for the atmosphere and land, and was run under present-day greenhouse gas conditions for 20
years. It represents one of the first efforts to simulate the planetary system at such high horizontal resolution. The climatology of the circulation of the atmosphere and the upper ocean were compared with observational data and reanalysis products to identify persistent mean climate biases. Intensified and contracted polar vortices, and too cold sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the subpolar and mid-latitude Northern Hemisphere were the dominant biases produced by the model. Intense category 4 cyclones formed spontaneously in the tropical North Pacific. A case study of the ocean response to one such event shows the realistic formation of a cold SST wake, mixed layer deepening, and warming below the mixed layer. Too many tropical cyclones formed in the North Pacific however, due to too high SSTs in the tropical eastern Pacific. In the North Atlantic anomalously low SSTs lead to a dearth of hurricanes. Agulhas eddy pathways are more realistic than in equivalent stand-alone ocean simulations forced with atmospheric reanalysis.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
This paper provides an overview of the United States (US) Department of Energy's (DOE's) Energy Exascale Earth System Model version 2 (E3SMv2) fully coupled regionally refined model (RRM) and ...documents the overall atmosphere, land, and river results from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6 (CMIP6) DECK (Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Characterization of Klima) and historical simulations - a first-of-its-kind set of climate production simulations using RRM. The North American (NA) RRM (NARRM) is developed as the high-resolution configuration of E3SMv2 with the primary goal of more explicitly addressing DOE's mission needs regarding impacts to the US energy sector facing Earth system changes. The NARRM features finer horizontal resolution grids centered over NA, consisting of 25â100 km atmosphere and land, a 0.125.sup." river-routing model, and 14â60 km ocean and sea ice. By design, the computational cost of NARRM is â¼3x of the uniform low-resolution (LR) model at 100 km but only â¼ 10 %-20 % of a globally uniform high-resolution model at 25 km.
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