Biopolymer microgels have considerable potential for their ability to encapsulate, protect, and release bioactive components. Biopolymer microgels are small particles (typically 100nm to 1000μm) ...whose interior consists of a three-dimensional network of cross-linked biopolymer molecules that traps a considerable amount of solvent. This type of particle is also sometimes referred to as a nanogel, hydrogel bead, biopolymer particles, or microsphere. Biopolymer microgels are typically prepared using a two-step process involving particle formation and particle gelation. This article reviews the major constituents and fabrication methods that can be used to prepare microgels, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. It then provides an overview of the most important characteristics of microgel particles (such as size, shape, structure, composition, and electrical properties), and describes how these parameters can be manipulated to control the physicochemical properties and functional attributes of microgel suspensions (such as appearance, stability, rheology, and release profiles). Finally, recent examples of the utilization of biopolymer microgels to encapsulate, protect, or release bioactive agents, such as pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, enzymes, flavors, and probiotics is given.
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•Biopolymer microgels consist of small solvent-rich particles.•The interior of these particles contain cross-linked proteins or polysaccharides.•Microgels can be used to encapsulate, protect, and deliver bioactive agents.•Microgel functionality depends on their size, shape, structure, and composition.•Applications of microgels are reviewed.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
There is increasing interest within the food, beverage and pharmaceutical industries in utilizing edible nanoemulsions to encapsulate, protect and deliver lipophilic functional components, such as ...oil-soluble flavors, vitamins, preservatives, nutraceuticals, and drugs. There are a number of potential advantages of using nanoemulsions rather than conventional emulsions for this purpose: they can greatly increase the bioavailability of lipophilic substances; they scatter light weakly and so can be incorporated into optically transparent products; they can be used to modulate the product texture; and they have a high stability to particle aggregation and gravitational separation. On the other hand, there may also be some risks associated with the oral ingestion of nanoemulsions, such as their ability to change the biological fate of bioactive components within the gastrointestinal tract and the potential toxicity of some of the components used in their fabrication. This tutorial review provides an overview of the current status of nanoemulsion fabrication, properties, and applications with special emphasis on systems suitable for utilization within the food industry.
Edible nanoemulsions can be formed using a variety of different low-energy or high-energy methods. In this case, spontaneous emulsification is demonstrated.
Consumers are increasingly demanding foods that are more ethical, sustainable and nutritious to improve the health of themselves and the planet. The food industry is currently undergoing a ...revolution, as both small and large companies pivot toward the creation of a new generation of plant‐based products to meet this consumer demand. In particular, there is an emphasis on the production of plant‐based foods that mimic those that omnivores are familiar with, such as meat, fish, egg, milk, and their products. The main challenge in this area is to simulate the desirable appearance, texture, flavor, mouthfeel, and functionality of these products using ingredients that are isolated entirely from botanical sources, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. The molecular, chemical, and physical properties of plant‐derived ingredients are usually very different from those of animal‐derived ones. It is therefore critical to understand the fundamental properties of plant‐derived ingredients and how they can be assembled into structures resembling those found in animal products. This review article provides an overview of the current status of the scientific understanding of plant‐based foods and highlights areas where further research is required. In particular, it focuses on the chemical, physical, and functional properties of plant‐derived ingredients; the processing operations that can be used to convert these ingredients into food products; and, the science behind the formulation of vegan meat, fish, eggs, and milk alternatives.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Curcumin is a bioactive constituent isolated from turmeric that has historically been used as a seasoning, pigment, and herbal medicine in food. Recently, it has become one of the most commonly ...studied nutraceuticals in the pharmaceutical, supplement, and food areas because of its myriad of potential health benefits. For instance, it is claimed to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiparasite, and anticancer activities when ingested as a drug, supplement, or food. Toxicity studies suggest that it is safe to consume, even at relatively high levels. Its broad-spectrum biological activities and low toxicity have meant that it has been widely explored as a nutraceutical ingredient for application in functional foods. However, there are several hurdles that formulators must overcome when incorporating curcumin into commercial products, such as its low water solubility (especially under acidic and neutral conditions), chemical instability (especially under neutral and alkaline conditions), rapid metabolism by enzymes in the human body, and limited bioavailability. As a result, only a small fraction of ingested curcumin is actually absorbed into the bloodstream. These hurdles can be at least partially overcome by using encapsulation technologies, which involve trapping the curcumin within small particles. Some of the most commonly used edible microparticles or nanoparticles utilized for this purpose are micelles, liposomes, emulsions, solid lipid particles, and biopolymer particles. Each of these encapsulation technologies has its own benefits and limitations for particular product applications and it is important to select the most appropriate one.
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IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, UL, UM, UPUK
There has been a growing interest in consumers around the world in adopting a more plant-based diet for health, sustainability, and ethical reasons. Many commercially successful products have already ...been developed, including plant-based meat and milk analogs. However, the production of plant-based cheese analogs that consumers find desirable and acceptable has proved extremely challenging. This is mainly due to the compositional and structural complexity of real cheese products, which is difficult to mimic using plant-derived ingredients.
In this review article, we start by providing a brief overview of the production and properties of real dairy cheese. We then describe the plant-based ingredients and processing operations that can be used to assemble cheese analogs that mimic the composition, structure, physicochemical properties, sensory, and nutritional attributes of real cheese. We also consider in this review the potential impact of switching from animal-based to plant-based cheese on the environment and human health.
Plant-based cheeses can be produced from plant proteins obtained using fractionation or tissue disruption routes. These products are typically complex colloidal dispersions consisting of lipid droplets embedded within a viscoelastic polysaccharide and/or protein network. These plant-based cheeses are likely to be more environmentally sustainable and better for animal welfare than their regular counterparts. More research is needed to identify appropriate ingredients and processing methods, including understanding the changes in texture and flavor as well as creating appropriate melting behaviors. Moreover, further research is required to improve the nutritional profile and test the health effects of plant-based cheeses.
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•Plant-based cheeses are produced by fractionation or tissue disruption route.•The network is stabilized by starch, fat, and/or protein phase transitions.•Many different mechanisms are used to induce curd formation (e.g. ionic, thermal).•Current data suggest that plant-based cheeses have lower greenhouse gas emissions.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
The efficient development and production of high quality emulsion-based products depends on knowledge of their physicochemical properties and stability. A wide variety of different analytical ...techniques and methodologies have been developed to characterize the properties of food emulsions. The purpose of this review article is to provide a critical overview of the most important properties of emulsions that are of interest to the food industry, the type of analytical techniques that are available to measure these properties, and the experimental protocols that have been developed to characterize the stability of food emulsions. Recommendations are made about the most suitable analytical techniques and experimental protocols needed to characterize the stability and properties of food emulsions.
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BFBNIB, GIS, IJS, KISLJ, NUK, PNG, UL, UM, UPUK
The influence of an anionic marine polysaccharide (fucoidan) on the gastrointestinal fate of emulsified fish oils stabilized by different types of natural and synthetic emulsifier was examined: whey ...protein isolate (WPI); caseinate; lecithin; Tween 80. Oil-in-water emulsions in the absence and presence of fucoidan were passed through a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) that included mouth, stomach, and small intestine phases. The change in droplet properties (particle size, charge, and organization) was measured throughout the GIT and the rate and extent of lipid digestion was measured in the small intestine phase. The presence of fucoidan increased the initial digestion rate of caseinate- and WPI-stabilized emulsions due to its ability to modulate lipid droplet aggregation. The fucoidan appeared to suppress isoelectric aggregation of the droplets, which increased the surface area of lipids available for the lipase molecules. On the other hand, the presence of fucoidan had little impact on the digestion of emulsions stabilized by lecithin or Tween 80, since it did not strongly impact the lipid droplet aggregation state. These results have important implications for the fabrication of functional foods and beverages that can control lipid digestion in the gastrointestinal tract.
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•The impact of fucoidan on the gastrointestinal fate of emulsions was studied.•The effect of fucoidan depended on emulsifier type used to stabilize oil droplets.•Fucoidan promoted digestion of protein-coated droplets by reducing flocculation.•Fucoidan had little impact on digestion of lecithin- or Tween 80-coated droplets.•Fucoidan addition may be used to modulate GIT fate of emulsions.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
Nanotechnology offers the food industry a number of new approaches for improving the quality, shelf life, safety, and healthiness of foods. Nevertheless, there is concern from consumers, regulatory ...agencies, and the food industry about potential adverse effects (toxicity) associated with the application of nanotechnology in foods. In particular, there is concern about the direct incorporation of engineered nanoparticles into foods, such as those used as delivery systems for colors, flavors, preservatives, nutrients, and nutraceuticals, or those used to modify the optical, rheological, or flow properties of foods or food packaging. This review article summarizes the application of both inorganic (silver, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, and zinc oxide) and organic (lipid, protein, and carbohydrate) nanoparticles in foods, highlights the most important nanoparticle characteristics that influence their behavior, discusses the importance of food matrix and gastrointestinal tract effects on nanoparticle properties, emphasizes potential toxicity mechanisms of different food-grade nanoparticles, and stresses important areas where research is still needed. The authors note that nanoparticles are already present in many natural and processed foods, and that new kinds of nanoparticles may be utilized as functional ingredients by the food industry in the future. Many of these nanoparticles are unlikely to have adverse affects on human health, but there is evidence that some of them could have harmful effects and that future studies are required.
Nanoemulsions fabricated from food-grade ingredients are being increasingly utilized in the food industry to encapsulate, protect, and deliver lipophilic functional components, such as ...biologically-active lipids (e.g., ω-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid) and oil-soluble flavors, vitamins, preservatives, and nutraceuticals. The small size of the particles in nanoemulsions (r < 100 nm) means that they have a number of potential advantages over conventional emulsions-higher stability to droplet aggregation and gravitational separation, high optical clarity, ability to modulate product texture, and, increased bioavailability of lipophilic components. On the other hand, there may also be some risks associated with the oral ingestion of nanoemulsions, such as their ability to change the biological fate of bioactive components within the gastrointestinal tract and the potential toxicity of some of the components used in their fabrication. This review article provides an overview of the current status of nanoemulsion formulation, fabrication, properties, applications, biological fate, and potential toxicity with emphasis on systems suitable for utilization within the food and beverage industry.
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BFBNIB, GIS, IJS, KISLJ, NUK, PNG, UL, UM, UPUK
The food and beverage industry often need to encapsulate hydrophobic functional ingredients in their products, including colors, flavors, lipids, nutraceuticals preservatives, and vitamins. ...Encapsulation can improve the handling, water-dispersibility, chemically stability, and efficacy of these functional ingredients. In this review article, we focus on the design of nanoemulsion-based delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and deliver non-polar bioactive agents, such as vitamin A, D and E, β-carotene, lycopene, lutein, curcumin, resveratrol, and coenzyme Q10. Initially, the challenges associated with incorporating these different bioactives into foods are highlighted. The relative merits and drawbacks of different nanoemulsion fabrication methods are then discussed. Finally, examples of the application of nanoemulsions for improving the stability and bioavailability of various kinds of hydrophobic vitamins and nutraceuticals are provided.
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EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NUK, OBVAL, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
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