NITRATE IN LEAFY GREEN VEGETABLES AND ESTIMATED INTAKE Brkić, Danijel; Bošnir, Jasna; Bevardi, Martina ...
African journal of traditional, complementary, and alternative medicines,
03/2017, Volume:
14, Issue:
3
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
Vegetarian diets are rich in vegetables. Green leafy vegetables are foods that contain considerable amounts of nitrate, which can have both positive and negative effects on the human body. Their ...potential carcinogenicity and toxicity have been proven, particularly after the reduction of nitrate to nitrite itself or just serving as a reactant with amines and/or amides in the formation of N-nitroso compounds -N-nitrosamines and other nitrogen compounds which may have high levels of nitrate. The aim of this study was to determine whether there is a significant difference, considering the location and seasonal sampling period, in the level of nitrate in certain types of green vegetables, all in order to be able to assess their intake, and possible impact on human health, especially knowing that exposure to nitrate can be potentially higher for vegetarian population group.
For this purpose, the sampling of 200 different leafy green vegetables was conducted, all of which could be found in free sale in the Republic of Croatia. The sampling was conducted during two seasonal periods - the spring and autumn period. In the springtime, lettuce (sem), spinach (pinacho), kale (kale), chard (mangel) and cabbage (brassica) were sampled, and in autumn lettuce, spinach, kale, chard and arugula. Samples were analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detection.
The results from the spring sampling phase were in the range of 603 mg/kg for cabbage - 972 mg/kg for chard, and for autumn phase of 1.024 mg/kg for chard to 4.354 mg/kg for the arugula. The results showed that there were significant differences (p <0.05) for most of the samples analyzed, considering the sampling locations and time period.
The results indicate that the analyzed vegetables contain significant amounts of nitrate in their composition, which represents relatively significant, but still acceptable intake into the human body.
U radu su prikazani rezultati laboratorijskih pretraga navedenih u godišnjim izvješćima službenih laboratorija ovlaštenih za ispitivanje hrane za životinje u svrhu službenih kontrola u Republici ...Hrvatskoj za 2013. godinu. Utvrđeno je kako od ukupno 1804 ispitana uzorka hrane za životinje 483 uzorka (26,77%) nije sukladno propisanim parametrima sigurnosti i kakvoće. Na parametre sigurnosti, koji podrazumijevaju kemijske i mikrobiološke parametre, analizirano je 1765 uzoraka od kojih je 481 uzorak (27,25%) bio nesukladan propisanim parametrima. Na mikotoksine, kao kemijske parametre sigurnosti, ispitano je 1358 uzoraka kod kojih je nesukladnost utvrđena u 476 uzoraka (35,05%) zbog prisutnosti aflatoksina B1 iznad najviših dopuštenih količina. Najučestalija prisutnost aflatoksina B1 utvrđena je u kukuruzu i krmnim smjesama. Od ukupno 663 uzorka kukuruza količine aflatoksina B1 iznad najvećih dopuštenih količina utvrđene su u 262 uzorka (39,52%), dok su od ukupno 479 uzoraka krmnih smjesa povećane količine aflatoksina B1 utvrđene u 214 uzoraka (44,68%). Ukupno 5 uzoraka (1,35%) nije bilo sukladno propisanim mikrobiološkim parametrima, najčešće zbog prisutnosti bakterija iz roda Salmonella u krmnim smjesama. Na parametre kakvoće, koji podrazumijevaju kemijske parametre, analizirano je 39 uzoraka od kojih su 2 uzorka (5,13%) bila nesukladna propisanim parametrima kakvoće. Na udio pepela nesukladan je bio samo 1 uzorak, dok je drugi uzorak bio nesukladan i na udio pepela i na udio masti.
Speeding industrial development causes hurried life style as well as unstoppable energy consumption increase. During last years of 20th century in all developed countries raised awareness of limited ...amounts of major energy sources (fossil fuels), and attention is now directed to finding other energy sources. European Union emphasises production of alternative energy sources, like: methane, biogas, bio-diesel, bioethanol, liquid biomass, liquid gas and hydrogen. By utilizing organic waste from agricultural production for energy production, it is possible to gain profit and preserve environment. Sugar beet leaves and heads stay on plough-land during sugar beet root extraction and present great biomass potential that can be used for biogas production.
Summary
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is the most toxic representative in the group of nephrotoxic mycotoxins, ochratoxins. OTA was first isolated in 1965 as a stable secondary metabolite of A. ochraceus. ...Penicillia and aspergilli most often synthesize OTA on cereals (wheat, corn, barley, rye, rice), nuts, raw fruits and vegetables, plant origin foods (wine, coffee, beer, spices and chocolate) and animal feed. In addition to cereals, OTA often contaminates cured meat products as well. Agroecological factors can significantly influence on the presence and level of OTA in agricultural products. The level of food and feed contamination with OTA varies depending on climatic conditions, and contamination of crops with pathogenic fungi and mycotoxins occurs yet in the field, but also during harvesting, transportation and in inappropriate storage conditions. OTA is a moderately stable molecule that can be maintained after numerous food processing procedures and thus can be present in various final products. The maximum levels (ML) for OTA are prescribed by Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of April 25, 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. OTA is cumulatively toxic mycotoxin with relatively rapid absorption and distribution, but slow elimination and excretion. Although OTA is distributed in all organs, the highest concentrations (in rodents) were recorded in the kidneys, followed by the liver and muscles. In 2020, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded in the Opinion that OTA is genotoxic in vitro and in vivo, can contribute to cause nephrotoxicity in various animal species and kidney tumors in rodents, however, the mechanisms of genotoxicity has not been clarified. For the purpose of risk assessment, the Margin of Exposure (MOE) approach is proposed. EFSA set a toxicological reference points, BMDL (Benchmark dose lower confidence limit) for two critical effects:
‐ In order to characterize the non‐neoplastic effects, a reference dose with a lower confidence interval limit (BMDL10) of 4.73 μg/kg body weight per day was set, based on the critical kidney lesion formation effect observed in pigs.
‐ In order to characterize the neoplastic effects, a reference dose with a lower limit of the confidence interval (BMDL10) of 14.5 μg/kg body weight per day was set, based on the critical effect occurrence of kidney tumour's in rats.
Due to the possible direct and indirect contamination of different food types, for exposure assessment and consumer health protection, the Croatian Agency for Agriculture and Food (HAPIH) decided to produce a "Scientific opinion on the exposure of the adult population of the Republic of Croatia to ochratoxin A (OTA) from different types of food" on its own initiative.
For Scientific Opinion production results of OTA analysis were obtained through food monitoring programmes in the Republic of Croatia for period of four years (2018 ‐ 2021). Additionally, results of the scientific research project on mycotoxins in Croatian traditional meat products, conducted by the Croatian Veterinary Institute (HVI) Zagreb from period 2019 – 2021 were also included in the analysis. For the purpose of exposure assessment total of 644 OTA measurement concentration were used. Most of the data (97 %) were below the limit of quantification (< LOQ), and 22 of them (3 %) were quantified above the limit of quantification.
The results show that the highest average concentration of 0.89 ‐ 2.71 μg/kg for the LB ‐ UB approach was determined in the food category "Legumes, nuts, oilseeds and spices", then in the category "Fruits and fruit products" (0.7 ‐ 2.01 μg/kg for the LB ‐ UB approach), followed by the category "Meat and meat products" (0.07 ‐ 0.63 μg/kg for the LB ‐ UB approach) and "Cereals and cereal‐based products" (0.03 – 1.21 μg/kg for LB – UB approach). It can be observed that all samples analysed in the categories "Alcoholic beverages", "Coffee, cocoa, tea and other infusions" and "Composite dishes" were below the LOQ.
Dietary habits data were obtained from the National Survey on Dietary Habits of the Adult Population in Croatia, which HAPIH conducted in 2011 and 2012 on a representative sample number of 2002 respondents. From the total number of respondents which are participated in research, for the purposes of exposure assessment to OTA, 2002 consumers who reported consumption of products in which OTA was determined, were taken into account.
The average value of OTA concentration was used for the exposure assessment, with the application of the substitution approach for results below the LOD (a value equal to the LOD upper bound), zero (lower bound) or half the LOD (medium or middle bound), for an individual food group at EFSA FoodEx2 Level 2 classification. When assessing exposure, the average daily food consumption for each individual consumer was used at the lowest EFSA FoodEx2 level reported, and the body weight of each individual consumer was also used. Exposure limit calculations were performed using the MOE approach.
The MOE results for non‐neoplastic effects (BMDL10 4.73 μg/kg bw/day), which were ≥ 200, indicate a low health concern for the adult population due to OTA intake through analyzed food groups.
The MOE results for neoplastic effects (BMDL10 14.5 μg/kg bw/day), which were up to 10 000, indicate a possible health concern for the adult population due OTA intake through analyzed food groups.
Similar results for non‐neoplastic and neoplastic effects of OTA were published by EFSA in its Scientific Opinion in 2020, stating that the risk for neoplastic effects was determined for almost all exposure scenarios. Additionally, EFSA states that the uncertainties in the assessment stated are large, risk may be overestimated and that it is necessary to conduct additional research related to critical effects. In the case of neoplastic effects, the application of an MOE of 10 000 for substances that are directly genotoxic and carcinogenic may not be appropriate for OTA because the evidence for direct effects of this mycotoxin on DNA is inconclusive.
Given that OTA contamination occurs at the source of infection, i.e. even in primary production, this opinion also provides detailed recommendations in order to minimize mould infection and thus the occurrence of OTA. Additionally, recommendations for the meat products production are also provided.
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Summary
Acrylamide is a natural by‐product of the reaction that occurs during the baking or frying food at temperatures above 120°C in industry and in households. The main mechanism of acrylamide ...formation in food is the Maillard reaction, in which the free amino acid asparagine, which is found in many types of cereals and potatoes, reacts with reducing sugars (e.g. glucose, fructose). Besides formation of acrylamide, Maillard reaction lead to the browning of food and a change in food flavour. It is known that acrylamide can also be present in cigarette smoke, and some individuals can be exposed to it in the workplace through skin absorption or inhalation (EFSA, 2015).
In 2015, the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) stated in its opinion that experiments on animals show that acrylamide and its metabolites are genotoxic and carcinogenic because they damage deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Evidence from human studies suggesting that exposure to acrylamide causes tumours are currently limited and inconclusive, but despite this, acrylamide remains on the list of substances that are potentially carcinogenic to humans until more detailed studies are conducted to prove the opposite. Due to its small molecular weight, it is quickly and easily absorbed in the intestines and then distributed throughout the body via the circulatory system.
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), acrylamide is classified as a group 2A carcinogen (probably carcinogenic to humans) (IARC, 1994).
Due to all of the above, it is desirable that the level of reference values of acrylamide in food be as low as possible within technological possibilities.
Since the maximum levels (ML) of acrylamide in food are not defined by legal regulations in 2017 Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 of 20 November 2017 establishing mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of the presence of acrylamide in food, was adopted. Additionally, in 2019, the European Commission issued Commission Recommendation (EU) 2019/1888 of 7 November 2019 on the monitoring of the presence of acrylamide in certain foods, with the aim to enable competent authorities in member states regular monitoring of the acrylamide occurance in food.
In accordance with above Regulation and Recommendation of the European Commission the Republic of Croatia continuously controlled the acrylamide occurrence in food, as part of national monitoring. Based on the data obtained, the Croatian Agency for Agriculture and Food, decided on its own initiative, to produce a Scientific Opinion on the exposure of adult population in the Republic of Croatia to acrylamide in food. The results of the food monitoring for acrylamide in the Republic of Croatia for a period of four years (2018, 2019, 2020, 2021) were used for the production of the opinion.
Out of a total of 452 samples, in 158 (34.96 %) acrylamide was determined in amounts below the limit of quantification (< LOQ). Based on the obtained results, the highest average concentration of 405.78 ‐ 406.95 μg/kg for the LB ‐ UB approach was in the food category “Coffee, cocoa, tea and other infusions”, then in the category “Composite dishes” (212.21 ‐ 218.49 μg/kg for the LB ‐ UB approach), while it was slightly lower in the category of “Cereals and cereal‐based products” (111.38 ‐ 122.98 μg/kg for the LB ‐ UB approach).
Data on dietary habits were obtained from the Croatian National Food Consumption Survey on Adult Population, which was conducted by the Croatian Agency for Agriculture and Food in 2011 and 2012 on a representative sample of 2002 participants. From the total number of respondents who participated in the mentioned research, for the purposes of assessing exposure to acrylamide, 1995 consumers who reported consumption of products containing acrylamide were taken into account.
Considering that acrylamide is a contaminant with carcinogenic and genotoxic effects, for the purpose of risk characterisation, the chronic exposure of the adult population of the Republic of Croatia was calculated for the S1 and S2 scenarios. In the S1 scenario, the exposure was calculated based on the data for acrylamide levels, also taking into account the data where the measured value exceeded the benchmark levels. However, in order to assess the impact of such data on the overall exposure assessment, S2 scenario was also carried out, in which the data of non‐compliant samples (8 samples) were excluded. Results showed that the impact of the exclusion of such data on the exposure results is very small.
After that, the calculations of the margin of exposure were started using the MOE (eng. Margin of exposure) approach. The BDML10 value used for neoplastic effects is 170 μg/kg bw/day, and for the end point of neurotoxicity 430 μg/kg bw/day.
The MOE for neoplastic effects (170 μg/kg bw/day) for average exposure in the S1 scenario (UB) is 643, while for the 95th percentile (UB) it is 280. For the same effect for average exposure in the S2 scenario (UB) the MOE is 678, while for the 95th percentile values (UB) it is 297.
The MOE for neurotoxicity (430 μg/kg bw/day) for average exposure in the S1 scenario (UB) is 1627, while for the 95th percentile (UB) it is 708. For the same effect for average exposure in the S2 scenario (UB) the MOE is 1715, while for the 95th percentile values (UB) it is 750.
The MOE value is considered safe if it exceeds 10 000. Taking into account the results obtained for the MOE (BMDL10 170 and 430 μg/kg bw/day) in both scenarios, which were below 10 000, it can be concluded that the intake of acrylamide through the observed categories of food for the adult population in Republic of Croatia can be possible health concern.
It is recommened that the competent authorities and experts must work with the food business operators to minimise the acrylamide content in the final product and that consumers must be educated about how to reduce their consumption of foods that may contain acrylamide.
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Cilj ovoga rada bio je odrediti i usporediti količinu teških metala u 74 uzorka bijele (N = 39) i plave ribe (N = 35), uzorkovanih u proljetnom (N = 38) i jesenskom razdoblju (N = 36), kako bi se ...istražila moguća razlika u koncentracijama teških metala, posebice žive, ovisno o sezoni ulova ili tipu ribe i procijenilo mogu li determinirane količine imati štetnih utjecaja na zdravlje potrošača. Riba je izabrana, budući da je ona indikator zagađenja teškim metalima u eko sustavu. Količina teških metala, olova (Pb) i kadmija (Cd), u obje grupe uzoraka, bila je niža od maksimalnih dopuštenih koncentracija prema hrvatskih i europskim zakonima. Količina žive (Hg) bila je više od maksimalnih dopuštenih koncentracija u vrlo malom broju uzoraka 3/74 (0,04%). Međutim, u uzrocima su zabilježene relevantne količine arsena (As), iako količine arsena nisu regulirane hrvatskim propisima. Multivarijatna statistička obrada (neparametrijski Mann-Whitney U test) pokazala je statistički značajne razlike u količini arsena u proljetnom razdoblju u odnosu na jesensko razdoblje, kao što je i izmjerena količina žive statistički značajno bila viša u bijeloj u odnosu na plavu ribu, te ona izmjerena u jesenskom razdoblju u odnosu na proljetno. Uzevši, međutim, u obzir potrošačke navike i učestalost konzumacije ribe u Hrvatskoj, izmjerene koncentracije nisu povezane s rizikom štetnih posljedica na zdravlje potrošača.
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