New-generation X-ray polarimeters currently under development promise to open a new window in the study of high-energy astrophysical sources. Among them, neutron stars (NSs) appear particularly ...suited for polarization measurements. Radiation from the (cooling) surface of an NS is expected to exhibit a large intrinsic polarization degree due to the star strong magnetic field (≈1012–1015 G), which influences the plasma opacity in the outermost stellar layers. The polarization fraction and polarization angle as measured by an instrument, however, do not necessary coincide with the intrinsic ones derived from models of surface emission. This is due to the effects of quantum electrodynamics in the highly magnetized vacuum around the star (the vacuum polarization) coupled with the rotation of the Stokes parameters in the plane perpendicular to the line of sight induced by the non-uniform magnetic field. Here, we revisit the problem and present an efficient method for computing the observed polarization fraction and polarization angle in the case of radiation coming from the entire surface of an NS, accounting for both vacuum polarization and geometrical effects due to the extended emitting region. Our approach is fairly general and is illustrated in the case of blackbody emission from an NS with either a dipolar or a (globally) twisted magnetic field.
Infrared, optical and ultraviolet spectropolarimetric observations have proven to be ideal tools for the study of the hidden nuclei of type 2 active galactic nuclei (AGN) and for constraining the ...composition and morphology of the sub-parsec scale emission components. In this paper, we extend the analysis to the polarization of the X-rays from type 2 AGN. Combining two radiative transfer codes, we performed the first simulations of photons originating in the gravity-dominated vicinity of the black hole and scattering in structures all the way out to the parsec-scale torus and polar winds. We demonstrate that, when strong gravity effects are accounted for, the X-ray polarimetric signal of Seyfert-2s carries as much information about the central AGN components as spectropolarimetric observations of Seyfert-1s. The spectropolarimetric measurements can constrain the spin of the central supermassive black hole even in edge-on AGN, the hydrogen column density along the observer's line-of-sight and the composition of the polar outflows. However, the polarization state of the continuum source is washed out by multiple scattering, and should not be measurable unless the initial polarization is exceptionally strong. Finally, we estimate that modern X-ray polarimeters, either based on the photoelectric effect or on Compton scattering, will require long observational times on the order of a couple of megaseconds to be able to properly measure the polarization of type 2 AGN.
Despite past panchromatic observations of the innermost part of the Milky Way, the overall structure of the Galactic Centre (GC) remains enigmatic in terms of geometry. In this paper, we aim to show ...how polarimetry can probe the three-dimensional position of the molecular material in the central ∼100 pc of the GC. We investigate a model where the central supermassive black hole Sgr A* is radiatively coupled to a fragmented circumnuclear disc (CND), an elliptical twisted ring representative of the central molecular zone (CMZ), and the two main, bright molecular clouds Sgr B2 and Sgr C. 8–35 keV integrated polarization mapping reveals that Sgr B2 and Sgr C, situated at the two sides of the CMZ, present the highest polarization degrees (66.5 and 47.8 per cent, respectively), both associated with a polarization position angle ψ = 90° (normal to the scattering plane). The CND shows a lower polarization degree, 1.0 per cent with ψ = −20
$_{.}^{\circ}$
5, tracing the inclination of the CND with respect to the Galactic plane. The CMZ polarization is spatially variable. We also consider a range of spatial locations for Sgr A* and the reprocessing media, and investigate how the modelled three-dimensional geometry influences the resulting GC polarization. The two reflection nebulae are found to always produce high polarization degrees (≫10 per cent). We show that a 500 ks observation with a broad-band polarimeter could constrain the location and the morphology of the scattering material with respect to the emitting source, revealing the past activity of Sgr A*.
The X-ray polarization properties of the reflection nebulae in the Galactic center inform us about the direction of the illuminating source (through the polarization angle) and the cloud position ...along the line of sight (through the polarization degree). However, the detected polarization degree is expected to be lowered because the polarized emission of the clouds is mixed with the unpolarized diffuse emission that permeates the Galactic center region. In a real observation, also the morphological smearing of the source due to the point spread function and the unpolarized instrumental background contribute in diluting the polarization degree. So far, these effects have never been included in the estimation of the dilution. We evaluate the detectability of the X-ray polarization predicted for the MC2, Bridge-B2, G0.11-0.11, Sgr B2, Sgr C1, Sgr C2, and Sgr C3 molecular clouds with modern X-ray imaging polarimeters such as the Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE), which is expected to launch in 2021, and the Enhanced X-ray Timing and Polarimetry mission (eXTP), whose launch is scheduled for 2027. We perform realistic simulations of X-ray polarimetric observations considering (with the aid of
Chandra
maps and spectra) the spatial, spectral, and polarization properties of all the diffuse emission and background components in each region of interest. We find that in the 4.0–8.0 keV band, where the emission of the molecular clouds outshines the other components, the dilution of the polarization degree, including the contribution due to the morphological smearing of the source, ranges between ~19% and ~55%. We conclude that for some distance values reported in the literature, the diluted polarization degree of G0.11-0.11, Sgr B2, Bridge-B2, Bridge-E, Sgr C1, and Sgr C3 may be detectable in a 2 Ms long IXPE observations. With the same exposure time, and considering the whole range of possible distances reported in the literature, the enhanced capabilities of eXTP may allow detecting the 4.0–8.0 keV of all the targets considered here.
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Context. The origin of irradiation and fluorescence of the 6.4 keV bright giant molecular clouds surrounding Sgr A∗, the central supermassive black hole of our Galaxy, remains enigmatic despite ...numerous attempts to decipher it with spectroscopic and timing analyses. Aims. Testing the theory of a past active period of Sgr A∗ requires opening a new observational window: X-ray polarimetry. In this paper, we aim to show how modern imaging polarimeters could revolutionize our understanding of the Galactic center (GC). Methods. Through Monte Carlo modeling, we produced a 4−8 keV polarization map of the GC. We focused on the polarimetric signature produced by Sgr B1, Sgr B2, G0.11-0.11, Bridge E, Bridge D, Bridge B2, MC2, MC1, Sgr C3, Sgr C2, and Sgr C1. We estimated the resulting polarization that arises from these scattering targets, included polarized flux dilution by the diffuse plasma emission detected toward the GC, and simulated the polarization map that modern polarimetric detectors would obtain assuming the performances of a mission prototype. Results. The eleven reflection nebulae we investigated present a variety of polarization signatures, ranging from nearly unpolarized to highly polarized (~77%) fluxes. Their polarization position angle is found to be normal to the scattering plane, as expected from previous studies. A major improvement in our simulation is the addition of a diffuse, unpolarized plasma emission that strongly affects soft X-ray polarized fluxes. The dilution factor is in the range 50%−70%, making the observation of the Bridge structure unlikely even in the context of modern polarimetry. The best targets are the Sgr B and Sgr C complexes and the G0.11-0.11 cloud, arranged in the order of decreasing detectability. Conclusions. An exploratory observation of a few hundred kilo-seconds of the Sgr B complex would allow a significant detection of the polarization and be sufficient to derive indications of the primary radiation source. A more ambitious program (few Ms) of mapping the giant molecular clouds could then be carried out to probe the turbulent history of Sgr A∗ with great precision and place important constraints on the composition and three-dimensional position of the surrounding gas.
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We discuss a model of an X-ray illuminating source above an accretion disk of a rotating black hole. Within the so-called lamp-post scheme we compute the expected (observed) polarization properties ...of the radiation reaching an observer. We explore the dependences on model parameters, employing Monte Carlo radiation transfer computations of the X-ray reflection on the accretion disk and taking general relativity effects into account. In particular, we discuss the role of the black hole spin, of the observer viewing angle, and of the primary X-ray source distance from the black hole. We give several examples of the resulting polarization degree for two types of exemplary objects--active galactic nuclei and Galactic black holes. In order to assess potential observability of the polarization features, we assume the sensitivity of the proposed New Hard X-ray Mission (NHXM). We examine the energy range from several keV to ~50 keV, so the iron line complex and the Compton hump are included in our model spectra. We find the resultant polarization degree to increase at the higher end of the studied energy band, i.e., at 20 keV. Thus, the best results for polarimetry of reflection spectra should be achieved at the Compton hump energy region. We also obtain a higher polarization degree for large spin values of the black hole, small heights of the primary source, and low inclination angles of the observer.
The study of magnetars is of particular relevance since these objects are the only laboratories where the physics in ultra-strong magnetic fields can be directly tested. Until now, spectroscopic and ...timing measurements at X-ray energies in soft gamma repeaters and anomalous X-ray pulsars (AXPs) have been the main source of information about the physical properties of a magnetar and of its magnetosphere. Spectral fitting in the ∼0.5–10 keV range allowed us to validate the ‘twisted magnetosphere’ model, probing the structure of the external field and estimating the density and velocity of the magnetospheric currents. Spectroscopy alone, however, may fail in disambiguating the two key parameters governing magnetospheric scattering (the charge velocity and the twist angle) and is quite insensitive to the source geometry. X-ray polarimetry, on the other hand, can provide a quantum leap in the field by adding two extra observables, the linear polarization degree and the polarization angle. Using the bright AXP 1RXS J170849.0−400910 as a template, we show that phase-resolved polarimetric measurements can unambiguously determine the model parameters, even with a small X-ray polarimetry mission carrying modern photoelectric detectors and existing X-ray optics. We also show that polarimetric measurements can pinpoint vacuum polarization effects and thus provide indirect evidence for ultra-strong magnetic fields.
Thermal emission from the accretion disc around a black hole can be polarized, due to Thomson scattering in a disc atmosphere. In Newtonian space, the polarization angle must be either parallel or ...perpendicular to the projection of the disc axis on the sky. As first pointed out by Stark and Connors in 1977, General Relativity effects strongly modify the polarization properties of the thermal radiation as observed at infinity. Among these effects, the rotation of the polarization angle with energy is particularly useful as a diagnostic tool. In this paper, we extend the Stark and Connors calculations by including the spectral hardening factor, several values of the optical depth of the scattering atmosphere and rendering the results to the expected performances of planned X-ray polarimeters. In particular, to assess the perspectives for the next generation of X-ray polarimeters, we consider the expected sensitivity of the detectors on board the planned POLARIX and International X-ray Observatory missions. We assume the two cases of a Schwarzschild and an extreme Kerr black hole with a standard thin disc and a scattering atmosphere. We compute the expected polarization degree and the angle as functions of the energy as they could be measured for different inclinations of the observer, optical thickness of the atmosphere and different values of the black hole spin. We assume the thermal emission dominates the X-ray band. Using the flux level of the microquasar GRS 1915+105 in the thermal state, we calculate the observed polarization.
We report on the detection of X-ray polarisation in the black-hole X-ray binary Swift J1727.8−1613 during its dim hard spectral state by the Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE). This is the ...first detection of X-ray polarisation at the transition from the soft to the hard state in an X-ray binary. We find an averaged 2–8 keV polarisation degree of (3.3 ± 0.4)% and a corresponding polarisation angle of 3° ±4°, which matches the polarisation detected during the rising stage of the outburst, in September–October 2023, within 1 σ uncertainty. The observational campaign complements previous studies of this source and enables comparison of the X-ray polarisation properties of a single transient across the X-ray hardness-intensity diagram. The complete recovery of the X-ray polarisation properties, including the energy dependence, came after a dramatic drop in the X-ray polarisation during the soft state. The new IXPE observations in the dim hard state at the reverse transition indicate that the accretion properties, including the geometry of the corona, appear to be strikingly similar to the bright hard state during the outburst rise despite the X-ray luminosities differing by two orders of magnitude.
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