When restoring habitat for biodiversity, the most effective outcome will be achieved by restoration projects which target several organism groups or ecosystem types. Such integrated approaches ...require direct comparisons among different ecological communities while evaluating success of restoration. The Community Completeness Index (CCI) is a recently developed metric that allows such comparisons by accounting for both present and absent but otherwise suitable taxa. We empirically evaluated the applicability of CCI for assessing the outcome of ecological restoration. We analyzed how species richness and the completeness of ecological communities recover after restoration, for different ecological groups and ecosystem types, and how it develops over time after restoration. Analyses were performed on 18 datasets with per site presence-absence data from Northern Europe. Each dataset represented one of the three habitat types (mire, forest, grassland) and different ecological groups (plants, flying insects, epigeic invertebrates). Datasets contained pristine, degraded and restored sites. We calculated the dark diversity and subsequently CCI based on species co-occurrences. Our multiple-study analyses revealed that CCI of grassland plant communities increased faster after restoration than invertebrate communities or plant communities in forests and mires. In addition, flying insect communities demonstrated significantly highest CCI in pristine mires. Some results were significant only for richness but not for CCI indicating species pool effect. Finally, completeness and species richness of restored communities increased with time since restoration. As such, our study demonstrated that CCI is a useful tool in evaluating restoration success across different organism groups and ecosystem types.
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EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
•Herbaceous phytometer can serve as a fast indicator of forest soil productivity.•Established habitat-specific fungal communities are crucial for forest functioning.•Pathogens can harm plant growth ...in soils containing successional fungal communities.•Mutualistic fungi can counterbalance negative pathogen effects on plant growth.
Knowledge of forest functioning is important for sustainable forest management and conservation. The growth variation of standardised plants (phytometers) can serve as a measure of ecosystem functions and provide a link with soil biotic and edaphic conditions.
We aimed to test experimentally how forest edaphic conditions and different soil symbiotic fungal guilds, their diversity and relative abundance affect the growth of herbaceous phytometer. We explored whether phytometer growth differs among three types of soils: i) natural (established fungal community), ii) sterilised by gamma-irradiation, iii) sterilised and inoculated with natural soil (successional fungal communities). We analysed soil samples from 100 old-growth boreo-nemoral forests in Southern Estonia. We used environmental DNA to evaluate the diversity and relative abundance of the following fungal guilds: arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM), ectomycorrhizal (ECM), pathogenic, and saprotrophic fungi. Phytometer (Hordeum vulgare) was grown under controlled greenhouse conditions for three weeks on differently treated (natural, sterilised, inoculated) soils from all sites.
Phytometer growth did not differ among treatments. Nevertheless, differently treated forest soils in interaction with fungal diversity measures often had a significant relationship with phytometer growth. Phytometer biomass was lower in successional communities with high pathogen diversity, which were counterbalanced by mutualists in established communities of natural soils. A positive relationship of phytometer growth with the diversity of forest-specific symbionts (ECM fungi) likely demonstrated the overall “health” of forest soils. The diversity of AM fungi was surprisingly negatively related to phytometer growth. However, the abundance of AM fungi showed a positive association with phytometer growth in successional communities.
We demonstrate that phytometer growth was related to soil fungal diversity depending on the presence and successional status of soil biota. Our study highlights that a herbaceous phytometer can be a quick, undemanding and affordable indicator of the status of forest soil biota. Healthy habitat-specific fungal communities are crucial for forest functioning and should be considered in management.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
We examined how plant-pollinator interactions were affected by time since habitat restoration and landscape connectivity by comparing plant-pollinator networks in restored, abandoned and continuously ...grazed semi-natural pastures in south-central Sweden. We measured richness of flowering plants and pollinators, and local plant-pollinator network characteristics including species composition as well as the number and identity of interactions, allowing a deeper understanding of species and interaction beta diversity. Pollinator richness and abundance were highest in restored grasslands. They successfully resembled continuously grazed grasslands. However, the turnover of interactions was extremely high among pasture categories (0.99) mainly due to high turnover of plant (0.74) and pollinator species (0.81). Among co-occurring plant and pollinator species, the turnover of interactions (0.66) was attributable mainly to differences in the number of links and to a lesser extent to species true rewiring (~0.17). Connectivity and time since restoration had no effect on the measured network properties. We show that plant-pollinator interactions can be rapidly restored even in relatively isolated grasslands. This is partly due to flexibility of most pollinators to establish interactions with the available flowering plants and relatively high species interaction rewiring, indicating that pollinators behavioural plasticity allow them to shift diets to adapt to new situations.
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IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, UL, UM, UPUK
Ecosystem biomass, soil conditions and the diversity of different taxa are often interrelated. These relationships could originate from biogeographic affinity (varying species pools) or from direct ...ecological effects within local communities. Disentangling regional and local causes is challenging as the former might mask the latter in natural ecosystems with varying habitat conditions. However, when the species pool contribution is considered in statistics, local ecological effects might be detected.
In this study we disentangle the indirect effects of the species pool and direct ecological effects on the complex relationships among wood volume, soil conditions and diversities of different plant and fungal groups in 100 old‐growth forest sites (10 × 10 m) at the border of boreal and nemoral zones in northern Europe.
We recorded all species for different vegetation groups: woody and herbaceous vascular plants, terricolous and epiphytic bryophytes and lichens. Fungal communities were detected by DNA‐based analyses from soil samples. Above‐ground wood volume was used as a proxy of biomass. We measured soil pH and nutrient content and obtained modelled climate parameters for each site. Species pool effect was considered by dividing sites into boreal and nemoral groups based on community composition. In order to disentangle direct and indirect effects, we applied variation partitioning, and raw and partial correlations.
We found many significant positive relationships among studied variables. Many of these relationships were associated to boreal and nemoral species pools, thus indicating that biogeographic affinity of interacting plants and fungi largely defines forest diversity and functioning. At the same time, several relationships were significant also after considering biogeography: woody plant and ectomycorrhizal fungi diversities with wood volume, many plant and fungal groups with each other, or with soil conditions. These direct ecological interactions could be considered in forestry practices to achieve both economic gain and maintenance of biodiversity.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Mire degradation due to drainage for forestry results in the loss of mire specialist species. To halt the loss in biodiversity, ecological restoration is needed and already implemented. However, a ...major challenge in ecological restoration is whether actions taken have the desired outcome. Key abiotic and biotic conditions for the successful restoration of invertebrate communities can be identified by testing the “Field of Dreams” hypothesis, which postulates that if a habitat is successfully restored, species will return. This study was conducted in nine boreal mires located in Eastern Finland, 1–3 years after restoration. Parts of each mire were drained for forestry during the 1960s and 1970s, and restored in 2003–2006. Two 250 m transects were established in each of three treatments (pristine, drained, restored) per mire. We used pitfall trapping to sample carabid beetles and spiders, sweep netting to sample micromoths and crane flies and counts along the transects to sample macromoths. Vegetation cover, water table level, and climatic variables were measured along all transects. Mire specialist species and invertebrate communities responded positively to restoration and negatively to drainage, whereas generalists showed varied responses. In addition, mire specialists were associated with high cover of Sphagnum mosses and with low numbers of tall trees (>3 m). Therefore, to successfully restore populations and communities of mire specialist invertebrates, maintaining environmental conditions that favor the growth of Sphagnum mosses, rewetting the sites and removing larger trees are necessary measures.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
During the past century, semi‐natural grasslands, once widespread throughout Europe, have largely been converted into intensively managed agricultural areas, abandoned or afforested. These ...large‐scale land‐use changes have already resulted in considerable biodiversity loss but can also lead to decline in ecosystem service provision and ecosystem multifunctionality.
We assessed the impact of afforestation and abandonment of semi‐natural grasslands on the supply of ecosystem services in Western Estonia. We compared a wide array of services provided by open grasslands, abandoned grasslands and afforested grasslands. Additionally, we analysed the impact of land‐use change and species richness on ecosystem multifunctionality.
Significant declines in the supply of pollination services, natural pest regulation, forage production, soil quality, wild food and cultural appreciation of landscape were detected as a result of overgrowing or afforestation.
There was significant positive relationship between species richness and ecosystem multifunctionality, that is, more biodiverse grasslands were able to support more services at higher capacity.
Results show that both grassland degradation due to abandonment, as well as grassland afforestation, have significant negative impacts on biodiversity, on the supply of multiple important ecosystem services and on the ecosystem multifunctionality.
Synthesis and applications. Temperate semi‐natural grasslands have high biodiversity and capacity to deliver multiple important ecosystem services simultaneously. Conservation and restoration of grassland habitats must be considered as an important part of sustainable landscape planning.
Temperate semi‐natural grasslands have high biodiversity and capacity to deliver multiple important ecosystem services simultaneously. Conservation and restoration of grassland habitats must be considered as an important part of sustainable landscape planning.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
•Younger secondary forests do not support the functional connectivity of many passively dispersing old-forest specific functional groups.•Old-forest specific groups are more limited by establishment ...than survival process in younger forests.•The functional connectivity of passively dispersing groups can be effectively studied with pattern-oriented agent-based simulation models.
Fragmented natural habitats, such as old-growth forests, have been often considered island-like systems. However, whereas the isolation of real islands is mostly a function of their spatial arrangement, the biodiversity of old-growth forest patches is also affected by how well the surrounding suboptimal habitats, such as younger forests, can support the functional connectivity between the old-forest fragments. The latter topic remains largely unclear due to the lack of mechanistic knowledge about the processes behind species’ affinity for old forest. Although in animal ecology, functional connectivity has often been investigated with mechanistic agent-based models, these have rarely been applied for passively dispersing organism groups. We used a pattern-oriented modeling approach by combining a spatially explicit agent-based model and an empirical biodiversity dataset of Estonian old-growth nemoral forest sites, to study how forests of different ages between the old-forest fragments are exploited by different passively or slowly dispersing functional groups. We found that the establishment of ground layer vegetation, epiphytes, ectomycorrhizal and pathogenic fungi is significantly restricted in the younger forests, whereas no clear difference between forest-age classes emerged for survival. Our results thus suggest that establishment, not survival, is the main process behind the species’ affinity for old forest, concurring with studies that have demonstrated the importance of suitable microhabitat availability in older forests. We conclude that young secondary forests do not support the connectivity – and consequently, biodiversity – of many old-forest specific groups.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Natural habitats are lost and fragmented by urbanization globally, resulting in isolated urban remnants of low biodiversity, devoid of specialist species. This homogenization of the urban landscape ...can be redressed if urban biodiversity hotspots are identified and conserved. Mires have the potential of being such refuges, since they host many mire specialist species of, e.g. arthropods. Here we investigated twenty pine mires that differed in urbanization level (low, intermediate and high) in southern Finland by evaluating the responses of carabid beetle and spider species and communities to potential landscape (level of urbanization, total mire area) and local (pH of peat, vegetation cover, wood volume) drivers. Pitfall trapping was used to collect the arthropods. We showed that high levels of urbanization have a negative effect on mire arthropod biodiversity. However, urban mire community structure seems not to be very different from rural communities as urban mires are still inhabited by mire specialists. Furthermore, tree-covered parts of urbanized mires can serve as refuges for rare forest specialist species and
Sphagnum
mosses play an important role in supporting mire species and communities, thus
Sphagnum
growth should be promoted. We showed that urban mires can be considered urban biodiversity hotspots and their protection should be secured in urban development.
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EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
Anthropogenic disturbances cause biotic homogenization through the replacement of specialist species with generalists. Restoration has the potential to counteract these negative effects. Recently, ...restoration in the peatlands of Northern Europe has started to show positive effects on biodiversity. However, seldom have studies evaluated the response of insects to restoration by comparing populations prior to restoration to those thereafter with a Before-After Control-Impact (BACI) design. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the restoration actions taken were appropriate to facilitate the successful recolonization of mire butterflies and plants. We found that, generally, drainage was negatively associated with mire specialist butterfly species and butterfly and plant communities, while generalist butterflies were not or were positively associated with drainage. In addition, mire specialist butterflies responded negatively to environmental variables associated with drained mires (number of tall trees) and positively to pristine mire-associated variables (larval food plant cover, number of low trees). Although restoration had a significantly positive effect on only two mire specialist butterflies (Boloria aquilonaris, Colias palaeno), it had a significantly positive effect on overall specialist species abundance. Furthermore, the structure of the butterfly and plant communities in restored sites became more similar to pristine sites a few years after restoration. We conclude that the restoration actions taken (removing tall trees but leaving smaller trees, and raising the water table level) are appropriate in creating suitable habitat conditions for mire butterflies. Finally, appropriate restoration actions in well-prioritized locations can reverse the trend of biotic homogenization.
•Mire specialist species and communities were negatively associated with drainage.•Specialists responded negatively to tall trees, positively to pristine conditions.•Restoration had a positive effect on specialist species and community structure.•Actions taken are appropriate in creating suitable conditions for mire butterflies.•Proper restoration in well-prioritized locations can reverse biotic homogenization.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
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