The present multiprobe single-case design study investigated the impact of integrating evidence-based behavioral supports into a small-group reading intervention on student engagement and disruptive ...behavior for six upper elementary students with co-occurring reading difficulties and inattention. Visual analysis suggested a functional relation for all six students on engagement and five students on disruptive behavior. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant mean effect of the intervention on engagement (Tau-U = 0.76) and disruptive behavior (Tau-U = 0.81). At the student level, the intervention led to a statistically significant improvement in engagement and decline in disruptive behavior for three and five students, respectively. Study outcomes suggested that evidence-based behavior supports, integrated into an evidence-based commercially available reading curriculum during small-group instruction, are both feasible and can lead to improved student behavior. Limitations and implications for research and practice are discussed.
Researchers have noted a nonlinear association between reading instruction dosage (i.e., hours of instruction) and reading outcomes for Grade K–3 students with reading difficulties (K–3 SWRD). In ...this article, we propose a nonlinear meta-analysis as a method to identify both the maximum effect size and optimal dosage of reading interventions for K–3 SWRD using 26 peer-reviewed studies including 186 effect sizes. Results suggested the effect sizes followed a concave parabolic shape, such that increasing dosage improved intervention effects until 39.92 hours of instruction (dmax = 0.77), after which the intervention effects declined. Moderator analyses found that maximum intervention effects on fluency outcomes were significantly larger (dmax = 1.34) than the overall maximum effect size. Also, when students received 1:1 instruction, the dosage response curve displayed a different functional form than the concave parabolic shape, showing the effect increased indefinitely after approximately 16.8 hours of instruction. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
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NUK, OILJ, SAZU, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
This study investigated the extent to which problem behaviors were factors associated with response to a year-long multicomponent reading intervention for fourth- and fifth-grade students with ...reading difficulties. Students scoring ≤85 standard score on the Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension (n = 108), a reading fluency and comprehension screener measure, were randomized to the researcher-provided treatment condition (n = 55) or the business-as-usual comparison condition (n = 53). Results indicated that problem behaviors were associated with lower reading comprehension outcomes. Findings also suggested that students with higher levels of overall problem behaviors and externalizing behaviors in the treatment condition outperformed similar students in the comparison condition on the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test (p < .05). Future research is needed on how to best identify, develop, and adapt effective interventions for students with reading difficulties and problem behaviors within school-wide response to intervention frameworks.
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The history of research on interventions for struggling readers in Grades 4 through 12 dates back to 19th-century case studies of seemingly intelligent children who were unable to learn to read. ...Physicians, psychologists, educators, and others were determined to help them. In the process, they launched a century of research on a wide variety of approaches to reading intervention. As shown in this systematic narrative review, much has changed over time in the conceptualization of reading interventions and the methods used to determine their efficacy in improving outcomes for struggling readers. Building on the knowledge gathered over the past 100 years, researchers and practitioners are well-poised to continue to make progress in developing and testing reading interventions over the next 100 years.
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This meta-analysis synthesizes the last two decades of experimental and quasiexperimental research on reading instruction across academic contexts (e.g., social studies, science, mathematics, English ...language arts) for English learners (ELs) in grades 4 through 8, to determine (a) the overall effectiveness of reading instruction for upper elementary and middle school students who are ELs and (b) how the magnitude of the effect varies based on student, instructional, and study characteristics. The analysis included a total of 11 studies with 46 individual effect sizes and yielded a mean effect size of g=0.35 across all (i.e., standardized and unstandardized) reading measures, g=0.01 across standardized reading measures, and g=0.43 across unstandardized reading measures. For all reading, unstandardized reading, all vocabulary, and unstandardized vocabulary measures, results suggest that higher quality studies tended to have smaller effects, and these effects were even more evident for unstandardized measures (i.e., one unit increase in study quality was associated with decreased effects: g=0.21, g=0.30, g=0.24, g=0.30, respectively). For all comprehension measures, effects were larger for instruction that included both vocabulary and comprehension (g=0.39) than for instruction that focused on vocabulary alone (g=0.08). Results suggest the benefit of developing and refining high-impact approaches to reading instruction for ELs that can be delivered across content areas and grades.
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BFBNIB, DOBA, EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, IZUM, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NMLJ, NUK, OBVAL, OILJ, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
Students with co-occurring reading difficulties and inattention tend to respond to reading interventions less favorably than those with reading difficulties without inattention. However, there is ...limited research on how to increase student engagement during reading instruction for these students. To support the engagement of students with co-occurring reading difficulties and inattention during reading instruction, the present study embedded antecedent- and consequence-based behavioral supports into an evidence-based reading curriculum to answer the following research question: What are the effects of integrating behavior supports into a reading intervention on student engagement relative to a reading intervention without behavior supports for fourth-grade students with co-occurring reading difficulties and inattention? The study used an ABAB withdrawal design. Study effects were evaluated by the What Works Clearinghouse visual analysis indicators and nonoverlapping data effect sizes. Results suggested the presence of a functional relation and large effect sizes for two of the three students in the study. Social validity data indicated that intervention was important and acceptable. Study findings suggest that embedding behavior supports into an evidence-based reading curriculum during small group reading instruction can be a feasible method for schools to address student engagement during reading instruction.
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DOBA, EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, IZUM, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
Prior research supports the need for elementary-aged students with reading difficulties (RDs) to receive explicit systematic small-group evidence-based reading instruction. Yet for many students, ...simply receiving evidence-based reading instruction in a small-group setting is insufficient to reach the progress milestones needed to meet grade-level reading standards. The current study examined whether (a) elementary school students with RD constitute homogeneous or heterogeneous groups when considering their basic language and cognitive skills (using a latent profile analysis) and (b) latent profiles are predictive of response to reading comprehension instruction (using a mixed modeling approach). The sample consisted of 335 students, including students with RD and typical students (n = 57). The results revealed heterogeneity within students with RD-there were two distinct profiles, with one having higher basic language (reading fluency and decoding) and cognitive (verbal domain productivity, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) skills and lower attention skills and the other having stronger attention skills and lower basic language and cognitive skills. The findings also suggested that latent profiles were predictive of response to reading comprehension instruction. Our results provide a convincing argument for leading the field in the direction of developing customized interventions. It is conceivable, but remains to be further examined, that researchers and educators could potentially improve reading outcomes through providing a customized reading intervention to a student based on their cognitive-language profile.
Educational Impact and Implications Statement
Although there are a few studies that previously classified students with reading difficulties into latent profiles using broadly conceptualized language and reading skills, there are no studies that simultaneously used cognitive-language skills, including attention, to examine heterogeneity among elementary school students with reading difficulties. Furthermore, there are no studies that investigated latent profiles as predictors of the response to instruction. In this study, we identified two distinct profiles, with one having higher basic language and cognitive skills and lower attention skills and the other having stronger attention skills and lower basic language and cognitive skills. The results suggested that latent profiles were predictive of response to reading instruction. Our findings expand what is known about customized interventions-it is conceivable that researchers and educators who consider the cognitive-language profiles of students may provide more responsive instruction and bring about improved student outcomes.
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CEKLJ, FFLJ, NUK, ODKLJ, PEFLJ, UPUK
Reading intervention sessions are most effective when students are engaged. Combined interventions that target both reading and engagement may produce stronger outcomes in both domains than separate ...interventions for each goal. They also have advantages of being efficient, thus requiring fewer resources. However, planning and executing combined interventions may be challenging to novice teachers. This article presents guidance for teacher educators to address combined reading and engagement support interventions in the context of a university reading methods course and applied fieldwork setting. The article outlines the importance of engagement to reading instruction and offers a framework for training teachers to implement reading interventions with embedded engagement supports, toward the overall goal of maximizing effectiveness of the reading instruction. Resources, tools, and sample activities are presented to further illustrate these concepts and facilitate their application in classrooms.
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We examine the efficacy of an intervention to improve word reading and reading comprehension in fourth- and fifth-grade students with significant reading problems. Using a randomized control trial ...design, we compare the fourth- and fifth-grade reading outcomes of students with severe reading difficulties who were provided a researcher-developed treatment with reading outcomes of students in a business-as-usual (BAU) comparison condition. A total of 280 fourth- and fifth-grade students were randomly assigned within school in a 1:1 ratio to either the BAU comparison condition (n = 139) or the treatment condition (n = 141). Treatment students were provided small-group tutoring for 30 to 45 minutes for an average of 68 lessons (mean hours of instruction = 44.4, SD = 11.2). Treatment students performed statistically significantly higher than BAU students on a word reading measure (effect size ES = 0. 58) and a measure of reading fluency (ES = 0.46). Though not statistically significant, effect sizes for students in the treatment condition were consistently higher than BAU students for decoding measures (ES = 0.06, 0.08), and mixed for comprehension (ES = -0.02, 0.14).
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This meta-analysis systematically identified reading intervention research for students with reading difficulties and problem behaviors in grades K–12 to determine the (a) impact of these reading ...interventions on reading outcomes and (b) extent to which reading outcomes varied based on student characteristics (e.g., grade, disability), intervention characteristics (e.g., group size, additional behavioral supports), and quality indicator characteristics. Follow-up analyses investigated three of the four hypothesized mechanisms underlying the high co-occurrence rate between reading difficulties and problem behaviors: (a) reading difficulties lead to future problem behaviors, (b) problem behaviors lead to future reading difficulties, and (c) a bi-directional association exists between reading difficulties and problem behaviors. Eleven studies were identified. There was a statistically significant main effect of reading interventions on reading outcomes (
g =
0.86,
p
< .01). We did not find evidence to support either of the three stated hypotheses. The primary limitation of this study was a lack of reading intervention research for students with reading difficulties and problem behaviors. Due to the limited sample of intervention research to investigate the first three hypotheses, future intervention research is needed to better understand the relationship between reading and behavior difficulties. Furthermore, future reading intervention research is needed to better understand how to best develop a program of instruction for this population of students.
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BFBNIB, DOBA, EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, IZUM, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NMLJ, NUK, OBVAL, OILJ, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
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