ABSTRACT Giant clumps are a characteristic feature of observed high-redshift disk galaxies. We propose that these kiloparsec-sized clumps have a complex substructure and are the result of many ...smaller clumps self-organizing themselves into clump clusters (CCs). This bottom-up scenario is in contrast to the common top-down view that these giant clumps form first and then sub-fragment. Using a high-resolution hydrodynamical simulation of an isolated, fragmented massive gas disk and mimicking the observations from Genzel et al. at z ∼ 2, we find remarkable agreement in many details. The CCs appear as single entities of sizes 0.9-1.4 kpc and masses ∼(1.5-3) , representative of high-z observations. They are organized in a ring around the center of the galaxy. The origin of the observed clumps' high intrinsic velocity dispersion 50-100 is fully explained by the internal irregular motions of their substructure in our simulation. No additional energy input, e.g., via stellar feedback, is necessary. Furthermore, in agreement with observations, we find a small velocity gradient 8-27 along the CCs in the beam-smeared velocity residual maps, which corresponds to net prograde and retrograde rotation with respect to the rotation of the galactic disk. The CC scenario could have strong implications for the internal evolution, lifetimes, and the migration timescales of the observed giant clumps, bulge growth, and active galactic nucleus activity, stellar feedback, and the chemical enrichment history of galactic disks.
Context. Detailed high-resolution studies of active galactic nuclei (AGN) with mid-infrared (MIR) interferometry have revealed parsec-sized dust emission that is elongated in the polar direction in ...four sources. Aims. Using a larger, coherently analyzed sample of AGN observed with MIR interferometry, we aim to identify elongated MIR emission in a statistical sample of sources. More specifically, we wish to determine if there is indeed a preferred direction of the elongation and whether this direction is consistent with a torus-like structure or with a polar emission. Methods. We investigated the significance of the detection of an elongated shape in the MIR emission by fitting elongated Gaussian models to the interferometric data at 12 μm. We paid special attention to (1) the uncertainties caused by an inhomogeneous (u,v) coverage; (2) the typical errors in the measurements; and (3) the spatial resolution achieved for each object. Results. From our sample of 23 sources, we are able to find elongated parsec-scale, MIR emission in five sources: three type 2s, one type 1i, and one type 1. Elongated emission in four of these sources has been published before; NGC 5506 is a new detection. The observed axis ratios are typically around 2 and the position angle of the 12 μm emission for all the elongated sources always seems to be closer to the polar axis of the system than to the equatorial axis. Two other objects, NGC 4507 and MCG-5-23-16, with reasonably well-mapped (u,v) coverage and good signal-to-noise ratios, appear to have a less elongated 12 μm emission. Conclusions. Our finding that sources showing elongated MIR emission are preferentially extended in polar direction sets strong constraints on torus models or implies that both the torus and NLR/outflow region have to be modeled together. In addition, models used for SED fitting will have to be revised to include emission from polar dust.
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ABSTRACT
We report on the determination of electron densities, and their impact on the outflow masses and rates, measured in the central few hundred parsecs of 11 local luminous active galaxies. We ...show that the peak of the integrated line emission in the active galactic nuclei (AGN) is significantly offset from the systemic velocity as traced by the stellar absorption features, indicating that the profiles are dominated by outflow. In contrast, matched inactive galaxies are characterized by a systemic peak and weaker outflow wing. We present three independent estimates of the electron density in these AGN, discussing the merits of the different methods. The electron density derived from the S ii doublet is significantly lower than that found with a method developed in the last decade using auroral and transauroral lines, as well as a recently introduced method based on the ionization parameter. The reason is that, for gas photoionized by an AGN, much of the S ii emission arises in an extended partially ionized zone where the implicit assumption that the electron density traces the hydrogen density is invalid. We propose ways to deal with this situation and we derive the associated outflow rates for ionized gas, which are in the range 0.001–0.5 M⊙ yr−1 for our AGN sample. We compare these outflow rates to the relation between $\dot{M}_{\rm out}$ and LAGN in the literature, and argue that it may need to be modified and rescaled towards lower mass outflow rates.
We present new near-infrared VLTI/GRAVITY interferometric spectra that spatially resolve the broad Br
γ
emission line in the nucleus of the active galaxy IRAS 09149−6206. We use these data to measure ...the size of the broad line region (BLR) and estimate the mass of the central black hole. Using an improved phase calibration method that reduces the differential phase uncertainty to 0.05° per baseline across the spectrum, we detect a differential phase signal that reaches a maximum of ∼0.5° between the line and continuum. This represents an offset of ∼120
μ
as (0.14 pc) between the BLR and the centroid of the hot dust distribution traced by the 2.3
μ
m continuum. The offset is well within the dust sublimation region, which matches the measured ∼0.6 mas (0.7 pc) diameter of the continuum. A clear velocity gradient, almost perpendicular to the offset, is traced by the reconstructed photocentres of the spectral channels of the Br
γ
line. We infer the radius of the BLR to be ∼65
μ
as (0.075 pc), which is consistent with the radius–luminosity relation of nearby active galactic nuclei derived based on the time lag of the H
β
line from reverberation mapping campaigns. Our dynamical modelling indicates the black hole mass is ∼1 × 10
8
M
⊙
, which is a little below, but consistent with, the standard
M
BH
–
σ
*
relation.
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The Galactic Center black hole Sgr A* is the archetypical example of an underfed massive black hole. The extremely low accretion rate can be understood in radiatively inefficient accretion flow ...models. Testing those models has proven to be difficult due to the lack of suitable probes. Radio and submillimeter polarization measurements constrain the flow very close to the event horizon. X-ray observations resolving the Bondi radius yield an estimate roughly four orders of magnitude further out. Here, we present a new, indirect measurement of the accretion flow density at intermediate radii. We use the dynamics of the gas cloud G2 to probe the ambient density. We detect the presence of a drag force slowing down G2 with a statistical significance of 9 . This probes the accretion flow density at around 1000 Schwarzschild radii and yields a number density of 4 × 103 cm−3. Self-similar accretion models where the density follows a power-law radial profile between the inner zone and the Bondi radius have predicted similar values.
ABSTRACT
We report on our combined analysis of HST, VLT/MUSE, VLT/SINFONI, and ALMA observations of the local Seyfert 2 galaxy, NGC 5728 to investigate in detail the feeding and feedback of the ...active galactic nucleus (AGN). The data sets simultaneously probe the morphology, excitation, and kinematics of the stars, ionized gas, and molecular gas over a large range of spatial scales (10 pc to 10 kpc). NGC 5728 contains a large stellar bar that is driving gas along prominent dust lanes to the inner 1 kpc where the gas settles into a circumnuclear ring. The ring is strongly star forming and contains a substantial population of young stars as indicated by the lowered stellar velocity dispersion and gas excitation consistent with H ii regions. We model the kinematics of the ring using the velocity field of the CO (2–1) emission and stars and find it is consistent with a rotating disc. The outer regions of the disc, where the dust lanes meet the ring, show signatures of inflow at a rate of 1 M$\odot$ yr−1. Inside the ring, we observe three molecular gas components corresponding to the circular rotation of the outer ring, a warped disc, and the nuclear stellar bar. The AGN is driving an ionized gas outflow that reaches a radius of 250 pc with a mass outflow rate of 0.08 M$\odot$ yr−1 consistent with its luminosity and scaling relations from previous studies. While we observe distinct holes in CO emission which could be signs of molecular gas removal, we find that largely the AGN is not disrupting the structure of the circumnuclear region.
ALMA observations have revealed nuclear dusty molecular disks or tori with characteristic sizes 15−40 pc in the few Seyferts and low -luminosity AGN that have been studied so far. These structures ...are generally decoupled both morphologically and kinematically from the host galaxy disk. We present ALMA observations of the CO(2–1) and CO(3–2) molecular gas transitions and associated (sub-) millimeter continua of the nearby Seyfert 1.5 galaxy NGC 3227 with angular resolutions 0.085 − 0.21″ (7–15 pc). On large scales, the cold molecular gas shows circular motions as well as streaming motions on scales of a few hundred parsecs that are associated with a large-scale bar. We fit the nuclear ALMA 1.3 mm emission with an unresolved component and an extended component. The 850 μm emission shows at least two extended components, one along the major axis of the nuclear disk, and the other along the axis of the ionization cone. The molecular gas in the central region (1″ ∼ 73 pc) shows several CO clumps with complex kinematics that appears to be dominated by noncircular motions. While we cannot conclusively demonstrate the presence of a warped nuclear disk, we also detected noncircular motions along the kinematic minor axis. They reach line-of-sight velocities of v − vsys = 150 − 200 km s−1. Assuming that the radial motions are in the plane of the galaxy, we interpret them as a nuclear molecular outflow due to molecular gas in the host galaxy that is entrained by the AGN wind. We derive molecular outflow rates of 5 M⊙ yr−1 and 0.6 M⊙ yr−1 at projected distances of up to 30 pc to the northeast and southwest of the AGN, respectively. At the AGN location we estimate a mass in molecular gas of 5 × 105 M⊙ and an equivalent average column density N(H2) = 2 − 3 × 1023 cm−2 in the inner 15 pc. The nuclear CO(2–1) and CO(3–2) molecular gas and submillimeter continuum emission of NGC 3227 do not resemble the classical compact torus. Rather, these emissions extend for several tens of parsecs and appear connected with the circumnuclear ring in the host galaxy disk, as found in other local AGN.
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We present near-infrared interferometric data on the Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1068, obtained with the GRAVITY instrument on the European Southern Observatory Very Large Telescope Interferometer. The ...extensive baseline coverage from 5 to 60
M
λ
allowed us to reconstruct a continuum image of the nucleus with an unrivaled 0.2 pc resolution in the
K
-band. We find a thin ring-like structure of emission with a radius
r
= 0.24 ± 0.03 pc, inclination
i
= 70 ± 5°, position angle PA = −50 ± 4°, and
h
/
r
< 0.14, which we associate with the dust sublimation region. The observed morphology is inconsistent with the expected signatures of a geometrically and optically thick torus. Instead, the infrared emission shows a striking resemblance to the 22 GHz maser disc, which suggests they share a common region of origin. The near-infrared spectral energy distribution indicates a bolometric luminosity of (0.4–4.7) × 10
45
erg s
−1
, behind a large
A
K
≈ 5.5 (
A
V
≈ 90) screen of extinction that also appears to contribute significantly to obscuring the broad line region.
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We use VLTI/GRAVITY near-infrared interferometry measurements of eight bright type 1 AGN to study the size and structure of hot dust that is heated by the central engine. We partially resolve each ...source, and report Gaussian full width at half-maximum sizes in the range 0.3−0.8 mas. In all but one object, we find no evidence for significant elongation or asymmetry (closure phases ≲1°). The narrow range of measured angular sizes is expected given the similar optical flux of our targets, and implies an increasing effective physical radius with bolometric luminosity, as found from previous reverberation and interferometry measurements. The measured sizes for Seyfert galaxies are systematically larger than for the two quasars in our sample when measured relative to the previously reported
R
∼
L
1/2
relationship, which is explained by emission at the sublimation radius. This could be evidence of an evolving near-infrared emission region structure as a function of central luminosity.
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