Aims.
We study the effect of disequilibrium processes (photochemistry and vertical transport) on mixing ratio profiles of neutral species and on the simulated spectra of a hot Jupiter exoplanet that ...orbits stars of various spectral types. We additionally address the impact of stellar activity that should be present, to various degrees, in all stars with convective envelopes.
Methods.
We used the VULCAN chemical kinetic code to compute number densities of species in irradiated planetary atmospheres. The temperature-pressure profile of the atmosphere was computed with the HELIOS code. We also utilized the
τ
-REx forward model to predict the spectra of planets in primary and secondary eclipses. In order to account for the stellar activity, we made use of the observed solar extreme ultraviolet (XUV) spectrum taken from Virtual Planetary Laboratory as a proxy for an active sun-like star.
Results.
We find large changes in the mixing ratios of most chemical species in planets orbiting A-type stars, which radiate strong XUV flux thereby inducing a very effective photodissociation. For some species, these changes can propagate very deep into the planetary atmosphere to pressures of around 1 bar. To observe disequilibrium chemistry we favor hot Jupiters with temperatures
T
eq
= 1000 K and ultra-hot Jupiters, with
T
eq
≈ 3000 K,which also have temperature inversion in their atmospheres. On the other hand, disequilibrium calculations predict no noticeable changes in spectra of planets with intermediate temperatures. We also show that stellar activity similar to that of the modern Sun drives important changes in mixing ratio profiles of atmospheric species. However, these changes take place at very high atmospheric altitudes and thus do not affect predicted spectra. Finally, we estimate that the effect of disequilibrium chemistry in planets orbiting nearby bright stars could be robustly detected and studied with future missions with spectroscopic capabilities in infrared such as
James Webb
Space Telescope and ARIEL.
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Context.
Several observational and theoretical results indicate that the atmospheric temperature of the ultra-hot Jupiter KELT-9b in the main line formation region is a few thousand degrees higher ...than predicted by self-consistent models.
Aims.
Our aim was to test whether non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) effects are responsible for the presumably higher temperature.
Methods.
We employed the Cloudy NLTE radiative transfer code to self-consistently compute the upper atmospheric temperature-pressure (TP) profile of KELT-9b, assuming solar metallicity and accounting for Roche potential. In the lower atmosphere, we used an updated version of the HELIOS radiative-convective equilibrium code to constrain the Cloudy model.
Results.
The Cloudy NLTE TP profile is ≈2000 K hotter than that obtained with previous models assuming LTE. In particular, in the 1–10
−7
bar range the temperature increases from ≈4000 to ≈8500 K, remaining roughly constant at lower pressures. We find that the high temperature in the upper atmosphere of KELT-9b is driven principally by NLTE effects modifying the Fe and Mg level populations, which strongly influence the atmospheric thermal balance. We employed Cloudy to compute LTE and NLTE synthetic transmission spectra on the basis of the TP profiles computed in LTE and NLTE, respectively, finding that the NLTE model generally produces stronger absorption lines, particularly in the ultraviolet, than the LTE model (up to 30%). We compared the NLTE synthetic transmission spectrum with the observed H
α
and H
β
line profiles obtaining an excellent match, thus supporting our results.
Conclusions.
The NLTE synthetic transmission spectrum can be used to guide future observations aiming at detecting features in the KELT-9b transmission spectrum. Metals, such as Mg and Fe, and NLTE effects shape the upper atmospheric temperature structure of KELT-9b, and thus affect the mass-loss rates derived from it. Finally, our results call for checking whether this is the case also for cooler planets.
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Context. Thanks to the advances in modern instrumentation we have learned about many exoplanets that span a wide range of masses and composition. Studying their atmospheres provides insight into ...planetary origin, evolution, dynamics, and habitability. Present and future observing facilities will address these important topics in great detail by using more precise observations, high-resolution spectroscopy, and improved analysis methods. Aims. We investigate the feasibility of retrieving the vertical temperature distribution and molecular number densities from expected exoplanet spectra in the near-infrared. We use the test case of the CRIRES+ instrument at the Very Large Telescope which will operate in the near-infrared between 1 and 5 μm and resolving powers of R = 100 000 and R = 50 000. We also determine the optimal wavelength coverage and observational strategies for increasing accuracy in the retrievals. Methods. We used the optimal estimation approach to retrieve the atmospheric parameters from the simulated emission observations of the hot Jupiter HD 189733b. The radiative transfer forward model is calculated using a public version of the τ-REx software package. Results. Our simulations show that we can retrieve accurate temperature distribution in a very wide range of atmospheric pressures between 1 bar and 10−6 bar depending on the chosen spectral region. Retrieving molecular mixing ratios is very challenging, but a simultaneous observations in two separate infrared regions around 1.6 and 2.3 μm helps to obtain accurate estimates; the exoplanetary spectra must be of relatively high signal-to-noise ratio S∕N ≥ 10, while the temperature can already be derived accurately with the lowest value that we considered in this study (S∕N = 5). Conclusions. The results of our study suggest that high-resolution near-infrared spectroscopy is a powerful tool for studying exoplanet atmospheres because numerous lines of different molecules can be analyzed simultaneously. Instruments similar to CRIRES+ will provide data for detailed retrieval and will provide new important constraints on the atmospheric chemistry and physics.
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Aims.
The aim of this study is to measure the vertical distribution of HCN on Titan’s stratosphere using ground-based submillimetre observations acquired quasi-simultaneously with the
Herschel
ones. ...This allows us to perform a consistency check between space and ground-based observations and to build a reference mean HCN vertical profile in Titan’s stratosphere.
Methods.
Using APEX and IRAM 30-m, we obtained the spectral emission of HCN (4-3) and (3-2) lines. Observations were reduced with GILDAS-CLASS. We applied a line-by-line radiative transfer code to calculate the synthetic spectra of HCN, and a retrieval algorithm based on optimal estimation to retrieve the temperature and HCN vertical distributions. We used the standard deviation-based metric to quantify the dispersion between the ground-based and
Herschel
HCN profiles and the mean one.
Results.
Our derived HCN abundance profiles are consistent with an increase from 40 ppb at ~100 km to 4 ppm at ~200 km, which is an altitude region where the HCN signatures are sensitive. We also demonstrate that the retrieved HCN distribution is sensitive to the data information and is restricted to Titan’s stratosphere. The HCN obtained from APEX data is less accurate than the one from IRAM data because of the poorer data quality, and covers a narrower altitude range. Comparisons between our results and the values from
Herschel
show similar abundance distributions, with maximum differences of 2.5 ppm ranging between 100 and 300 km in the vertical range. These comparisons also allow us to inter-validate both data sets and indicate reliable and consistent measurements. The inferred abundances are also consistent with the vertical distribution in previous observational studies, with the profiles from ALMA, Cassini/CIRS, and SMA (the latest ones below ~230 km). Our HCN profile is also comparable to photochemical models by Krasnopolsky (2014) and Vuitton et al. (2019) below 230 km and consistent with that of Loison et al. (2015) above 250 km. However, it appears to show large differences with respect to the estimates by Loison et al. (2015), Dobrijevic & Loison (2018), and Lora et al. (2018) below 170 km, and by Dobrijevic & Loison (2018) and Lora et al. (2018) above 400 km, although they are similar in shape. We conclude that these particular photochemical models need improvement.
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Context.
Observationally constraining the atmospheric temperature-pressure (TP) profile of exoplanets is an important step forward for improving planetary atmosphere models, thus further enabling one ...to place the detection of spectral features and the measurement of atomic and molecular abundances through transmission and emission spectroscopy on solid ground.
Aims.
The aim is to constrain the TP profile of the ultra-hot Jupiter KELT-9b by fitting synthetic spectra to the observed H
α
and H
β
lines and identify why self-consistent planetary TP models are unable to fit the observations.
Methods.
We constructed 126 one-dimensional TP profiles varying the lower and upper atmospheric temperatures, as well as the location and gradient of the temperature rise. For each TP profile, we computed the transmission spectra of the H
α
and H
β
lines employing the Cloudy radiative transfer code, which self-consistently accounts for non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) effects.
Results.
The TP profiles, leading to best fit the observations, are characterised by an upper atmospheric temperature of 10 000–11 000 K and by an inverted temperature profile at pressures higher than 10
−4
bar. We find that the assumption of local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) leads one to overestimate the level population of excited hydrogen by several orders of magnitude and hence to significantly overestimate the strength of the Balmer lines. The chemical composition of the best fitting models indicate that the high upper atmospheric temperature is most likely driven by metal photoionisation and that Fe
II
and Fe
III
have comparable abundances at pressures lower than 10
−6
bar, possibly making the latter detectable.
Conclusions.
Modelling the atmospheres of ultra-hot Jupiters requires one to account for metal photoionisation. The high atmospheric mass-loss rate (>10
11
g s
−1
), caused by the high temperature, may have consequences on the planetary atmospheric evolution. Other ultra-hot Jupiters orbiting early-type stars may be characterised by similarly high upper atmospheric temperatures and hence high mass-loss rates. This may have consequences on the basic properties of the observed planets orbiting hot stars.
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Context. M dwarfs are known to generate the strongest magnetic fields among main-sequence stars with convective envelopes, but we are still lacking a consistent picture of the link between the ...magnetic fields and underlying dynamo mechanisms, rotation, and activity. Aims. In this work we aim to measure magnetic fields from the high-resolution near-infrared spectra taken with the CARMENES radial-velocity planet survey in a sample of 29 active M dwarfs and compare our results against stellar parameters. Methods. We used the state-of-the-art radiative transfer code to measure total magnetic flux densities from the Zeeman broadening of spectral lines and filling factors. Results. We detect strong kG magnetic fields in all our targets. In 16 stars the magnetic fields were measured for the first time. Our measurements are consistent with the magnetic field saturation in stars with rotation periods P < 4 d. The analysis of the magnetic filling factors reveal two different patterns of either very smooth distribution or a more patchy one, which can be connected to the dynamo state of the stars and/or stellar mass. Conclusions. Our measurements extend the list of M dwarfs with strong surface magnetic fields. They also allow us to better constrain the interplay between the magnetic energy, stellar rotation, and underlying dynamo action. The high spectral resolution and observations at near-infrared wavelengths are the beneficial capabilities of the CARMENES instrument that allow us to address important questions about the stellar magnetism.
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ABSTRACT
The determination of fundamental parameters of stars is one of the main tasks of astrophysics. For magnetic chemically peculiar stars, this problem is complicated by the anomalous chemical ...composition of their atmospheres, which requires special analysis methods. We present the results of the effective temperature, surface gravity, abundance, and radius determinations for three CP stars HD 188041, HD 111133, and HD 204411. Our analysis is based on a self-consistent model fitting of high-resolution spectra and spectrophotometric observations over a wide wavelength range, taking into account the anomalous chemical composition of atmospheres and the inhomogeneous vertical distribution for three chemical elements: Ca, Cr, and Fe. For two stars, HD 188041 and HD 204411, we also performed interferometric observations that provided us with the direct estimates of stellar radii. Comparison of the radii determined from the analysis of spectroscopic/spectrophotometric observations with direct measurements of the radii by interferometry methods for seven CP stars shows that the radii agree within the limits of measurement errors, which proves indirect spectroscopic analysis capable of proving reliable determinations of the fundamental parameters of fainter Ap stars that are not possible to study with modern interferometric facilities.
Towards understanding dynamo action in M dwarfs Shulyak, D; Sokoloff, D; Kitchatinov, L ...
Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
06/2015, Volume:
449, Issue:
4
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
Recent progress in observational studies of magnetic activity in M dwarfs urgently requires support from ideas of stellar dynamo theory. We propose a strategy to connect observational and theoretical ...studies. In particular, we suggest four magnetic configurations that appear relevant to dwarfs from the viewpoint of the most conservative version of dynamo theory, and discuss observational tests to identify the configurations observationally. As expected, any such identification contains substantial uncertainties. However, the situation in general looks less pessimistic than might be expected. Several identifications between the phenomenology of individual stars and dynamo models are suggested. Remarkably, all models discussed predict substantial surface magnetic activity at rather high stellar latitudes. This prediction looks unexpected from the viewpoint of our experience observing the Sun (which of course differs in some fundamental ways from these late-type dwarfs). We stress that a fuller understanding of the topic requires a long-term (at least 15 years) monitoring of M dwarfs by Zeeman-Doppler imaging.
Isolated cool white dwarf stars more often have strong magnetic fields than young, hotter white dwarfs, which has been a puzzle because magnetic fields are expected to decay with time but a cool ...surface suggests that the star is old. In addition, some white dwarfs with strong fields vary in brightness as they rotate, which has been variously attributed to surface brightness inhomogeneities similar to sunspots, chemical inhomogeneities and other magneto-optical effects. Here we describe optical observations of the brightness and magnetic field of the cool white dwarf WD 1953-011 taken over about eight years, and the results of an analysis of its surface temperature and magnetic field distribution. We find that the magnetic field suppresses atmospheric convection, leading to dark spots in the most magnetized areas. We also find that strong fields are sufficient to suppress convection over the entire surface in cool magnetic white dwarfs, which inhibits their cooling evolution relative to weakly magnetic and non-magnetic white dwarfs, making them appear younger than they truly are. This explains the long-standing mystery of why magnetic fields are more common amongst cool white dwarfs, and implies that the currently accepted ages of strongly magnetic white dwarfs are systematically too young.
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DOBA, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
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