In addition to enhancing agricultural productivity, synthetic nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) fertilizer application in croplands dramatically alters global nutrient budget, water quality, ...greenhouse gas balance, and their feedback to the climate system. However, due to the lack of geospatial fertilizer input data, current Earth system and land surface modeling studies have to ignore or use oversimplified data (e.g., static, spatially uniform fertilizer use) to characterize agricultural N and P input over decadal or century-long periods. In this study, we therefore develop global time series gridded data of annual synthetic N and P fertilizer use rate in agricultural lands, matched with HYDE 3.2 historical land use maps, at a resolution of 0.5° × 0.5° latitude–longitude during 1961–2013. Our data indicate N and P fertilizer use rates on per unit cropland area increased by approximately 8 times and 3 times, respectively, since the year 1961 when IFA (International Fertilizer Industry Association) and FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) surveys of country-level fertilizer input became available. Considering cropland expansion, the increase in total fertilizer consumption is even larger. Hotspots of agricultural N fertilizer application shifted from the US and western Europe in the 1960s to eastern Asia in the early 21st century. P fertilizer input shows a similar pattern with an additional current hotspot in Brazil. We found a global increase in fertilizer N ∕ P ratio by 0.8 g N g−1 P per decade (p < 0.05) during 1961–2013, which may have an important global implication for human impacts on agroecosystem functions in the long run. Our data can serve as one of critical input drivers for regional and global models to assess the impacts of nutrient enrichment on climate system, water resources, food security, etc. Datasets available at doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.863323.
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IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, UL, UM, UPUK
Anthropogenic nitrous pollutant emissions in China significantly increased during the last decades, which contributed to the accelerated nitrogen (N) deposition. In order to characterize spatial ...pattern of nitrogen deposition, we employed the kriging technique to interpolate sampling data of precipitation chemistry and ambient air concentration from site‐network observations over China. The estimation of wet deposition in China was limited to aqueous NO3− and NH4+, while ambient NO2 was the only species involved in the predicted dry deposition fluxes. To obtain wet deposition fluxes, precipitation concentration was multiplied by 20‐year mean precipitation amounts with a resolution of 10 × 10 km. Dry deposition fluxes were products of the interpolated ambient NO2 concentration and deposition velocities modeled for the main vegetation types in China. The total deposition rates of wet and dry deposition peaked over the central south China, with maximum values of 63.53 kg N ha−1 yr−1, and an average value of 12.89 kg N ha−1 yr−1. With ambient NO2 concentration data spanning from the year 1990 through 2003, we detected and evaluated trends in the time series of the annual values of atmospheric NO2 concentration. Significant upward trends at 21 of 102 sites were exhibited, with median percent change of 61.45% over the period 1990–2003. In addition, spatially continuous patterns of dry deposition fluxes based on ambient NO2 measurements in two 5‐year phases, 9 years apart, were carried out. On average, there was a rise of 7.66% in NO2 dry deposition during 9 years throughout China.
One of the major limitations in assessing the impacts of human activities on global biogeochemical cycles and climate is a shortage of reliable data on historical land cover and land use change ...(LCLUC). China had extreme discrepancies in estimating contemporary and historical patterns of LCLUC over the last 3 centuries because of its geographical complexity, long history of land use, and limited national surveys. This study aims to characterize the spatial and temporal patterns of China's LCLUC during 1700–2005 by reconstructing historical gridded data sets from high‐resolution satellite data and long‐term historical survey data. During this 300 year period, the major characteristics of LCLUC in China have been shrinking forest (decreased by 22%) and expanding cropland (increased by 42%) and urban areas (including urban and rural settlements, factories, quarries, mining, and other built‐up land). New cropland areas have come almost equally from both forested and nonforested land. This study also revealed that substantial conversion between forest and woodland can be attributed to forest harvest, forest regeneration, and land degradation. During 1980–2005, LCLUC was characterized by shrinking cropland, expanding urban and forest areas, and large decadal variations on a national level. LCLUC in China showed significant spatial variations during different time periods, which were caused by spatial heterogeneity in vegetation, soils, and climate and regional imbalance in economy development. During 1700–2005, forests shrunk rapidly while croplands expanded in the northeast and southwest of China. During 1980–2005, we found a serious loss of cropland and urban sprawl in the eastern plain, north, and southeast regions of China and a large increase in forested area in the southeast and southwest regions. The reconstructed LCLUC data sets from this study could be used to assess the impacts of land use change on biogeochemical cycles, the water cycle, and the regional climate in China. To further eliminate uncertainties in this data set and make reliable projections of LCLUC for the future, we need to improve our understanding of the drivers of LCLUC and work toward developing an advanced, spatially explicit land use model.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
In rice cultivation, there are controversial reports on net impacts of nitrogen (N) fertilizers on methane (CH
4) emissions. Nitrogen fertilizers increase crop growth as well as alter CH
4 producing ...(Methanogens) and consuming (Methanotrophs) microbes, and thereby produce complex effects on CH
4 emissions. Objectives of this study were to determine net impact of N fertilizers on CH
4 emissions and to identify their underlying mechanisms in the rice soils. Database was obtained from 33 published papers that contained CH
4 emissions observations from N fertilizer (28–406 kg N ha−1) treatment and its control. Results have indicated that N fertilizers increased CH
4 emissions in 98 of 155 data pairs in rice soils. Response of CH
4 emissions per kg N fertilizer was significantly (P < 0.05) greater at < 140 kg N ha−1 than > 140 kg N ha−1 indicating that substrate switch from CH
4 to ammonia by Methanotrophs may not be a dominant mechanism for increased CH
4 emissions. On the contrary, decreased CH
4 emission in intermittent drainage by N fertilizers has suggested the stimulation of Methanotrophs in rice soils. Effects of N fertilizer stimulated Methanotrophs in reducing CH
4 emissions were modified by the continuous flood irrigation due to limitation of oxygen to Methanotrophs. Greater response of CH
4 emissions per kg N fertilizer in urea than ammonia sulfate probably indicated the interference of sulfate in the CH
4 production process. Overall, response of CH
4 emissions to N fertilizers was correlated with N‐induced crop yield (r = +0.39; P < 0.01), probably due to increased carbon substrates for Methanogens. Using CH
4 emission observations, this meta‐analysis has identified dominant microbial processes that control net effects of N fertilizers on CH
4 emissions in rice soils. Finally, we have provided a conceptual model that included microbial processes and controlling factors to predict effects of N fertilizers on CH
4 emissions in rice soils.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Grasslands absorb and release carbon dioxide (CO
), emit methane (CH
) from grazing livestock, and emit nitrous oxide (N
O) from soils. Little is known about how the fluxes of these three greenhouse ...gases, from managed and natural grasslands worldwide, have contributed to past climate change, or the roles of managed pastures versus natural grasslands. Here, global trends and regional patterns of the full greenhouse gas balance of grasslands are estimated for the period 1750 to 2012. A new spatially explicit land surface model is applied, to separate the direct effects of human activities from land management and the indirect effects from climate change, increasing CO
and regional changes in nitrogen deposition. Direct human management activities are simulated to have caused grasslands to switch from a sink to a source of greenhouse gas, because of increased livestock numbers and accelerated conversion of natural lands to pasture. However, climate change drivers contributed a net carbon sink in soil organic matter, mainly from the increased productivity of grasslands due to increased CO
and nitrogen deposition. The net radiative forcing of all grasslands is currently close to neutral, but has been increasing since the 1960s. Here, we show that the net global climate warming caused by managed grassland cancels the net climate cooling from carbon sinks in sparsely grazed and natural grasslands. In the face of future climate change and increased demand for livestock products, these findings highlight the need to use sustainable management to preserve and enhance soil carbon storage in grasslands and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from managed grasslands.
A wide variety of studies have revealed a substantial increase in nitrogen (N) deposition in China, but the lack of spatially-explicit time-series N deposition data set has long hindered us from ...assessing the impacts of atmospheric N input on ecosystem services. In this study, we combined site-level monitoring, gridded precipitation data and atmospheric transport modeling results to generate annual N bulk deposition data in China with a spatial resolution of 10 km × 10 km and a time span from 1961 to 2008. It shows that national average N deposition rate had large interannual variation, and it increased by 59%, from 12.64 kg N ha−1 yr−1 in the 1960s to 20.07 kg N ha−1 yr−1 in the recent decade, with the most rapid increase centered in the southeastern China that is already N-enriched. Large spatial variation as well as dry deposition input has to be taken into account when estimating the amount of N deposited onto land surface of China. The spatial and temporal information on N deposition derived from this study could be used by ecosystem, hydrological, and climate modeling as well as by policy makers for assessing the impacts of nitrogen enrichment on regional climate, water resources, and biogeochemical cycles.
•Gridded N deposition data in China during 1961–2008 was developed in this study.•China's N deposition is found to increase by 59%, to 20.07 kg N ha−1 yr−1 in the 2000s.•Spatial heterogeneity ought to be considered in estimating China's N deposition.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
Increasing reactive nitrogen (N) input has been recognized as one of the important factors influencing climate system through affecting the uptake and emission of greenhouse gases (GHG). However, the ...magnitude and spatiotemporal variations of N‐induced GHG fluxes at regional and global scales remain far from certain. Here we selected China as an example, and used a coupled biogeochemical model in conjunction with spatially explicit data sets (including climate, atmospheric CO2, O3, N deposition, land use, and land cover changes, and N fertilizer application) to simulate the concurrent impacts of increasing atmospheric and fertilized N inputs on balance of three major GHGs (CO2, CH4, and N2O). Our simulations showed that these two N enrichment sources in China decreased global warming potential (GWP) through stimulating CO2 sink and suppressing CH4 emission. However, direct N2O emission was estimated to offset 39% of N‐induced carbon (C) benefit, with a net GWP of three GHGs averaging −376.3 ± 146.4 Tg CO2 eq yr−1 (the standard deviation is interannual variability of GWP) during 2000–2008. The chemical N fertilizer uses were estimated to increase GWP by 45.6 ± 34.3 Tg CO2 eq yr−1 in the same period, and C sink was offset by 136%. The largest C sink offset ratio due to increasing N input was found in Southeast and Central mainland of China, where rapid industrial development and intensively managed crop system are located. Although exposed to the rapidly increasing N deposition, most of the natural vegetation covers were still showing decreasing GWP. However, due to extensive overuse of N fertilizer, China's cropland was found to show the least negative GWP, or even positive GWP in recent decade. From both scientific and policy perspectives, it is essential to incorporate multiple GHGs into a coupled biogeochemical framework for fully assessing N impacts on climate changes.
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BFBNIB, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
China's economic growth has significantly increased emissions of tropospheric ozone (O3) precursors, resulting in increased regional O3 pollution. We analyzed data from >1400 monitoring stations and ...estimated the exposure of population and vegetation (crops and forests) to O3 pollution across China in 2015. Based on WHO metrics for human health protection, the current O3 level leads to +0.9% premature mortality (59,844 additional cases a year) with 96% of populated areas showing O3–induced premature death. For vegetation, O3 reduces annual forest tree biomass growth by 11–13% and yield of rice and wheat by 8% and 6%, respectively, relative to conditions below the respective AOT40 critical levels (CL). These CLs are exceeded over 98%, 75% and 83% of the areas of forests, rice and wheat, respectively. Using O3 exposure–response functions, we evaluated the costs of O3-induced losses in rice (7.5 billion US$), wheat (11.1 billion US$) and forest production (52.2 billion US$) and SOMO35–based morbidity for respiratory diseases (690.9 billion US$) and non–accidental mortality (7.5 billion US$), i.e. a total O3-related cost representing 7% of the China Gross Domestic Product in 2015.
•O3 in China reduces annual forest tree biomass growth by 11–13% and yield of rice and wheat by 8% and 6%, respectively•The expected increase in mortality rate in China varies from 0.42% to 1.11% depending on the selected metric, corresponding to 28,000 to 74,000 premature deaths due to O3 pollution•Total O3-related cost in China represents 7% of the China Gross Domestic Product in 2015
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
The arid and semiarid region in central Asia is sensitive and vulnerable to climate variations. However, the sparse and highly unevenly distributed meteorological stations in the region provide ...limited data for understanding of the region’s climate variations. In this study, the near-surface air temperature change in central Asia from 1979 to 2011 was examined using observations from 81 meteorological stations, three local observation validated reanalysis datasets of relatively high spatial resolutions, and the Climate Research Unit (CRU) dataset. Major results suggested that the three reanalysis datasets match well with most of the local climate records, especially in the low-lying plain areas. The consensus of the multiple datasets showed significant regional surface air temperature increases of 0.36°–0.42°C decade−1in the past 33 years. No significant contributions from declining irrigation and urbanization to temperature change were found. The rate is larger in recent years than in the early years in the study period. Additionally, unlike in many regions in the world, the temperature in winter showed no increase in central Asia in the last three decades, a noticeable departure from the global trend in the twentieth century. The largest increase in surface temperature was occurring in the spring season. Analyses further showed a warming center in the middle of the central Asian states and weakened temperature variability along the northwest–southeast temperature gradient from the northern Kazakhstan to southern Xinjiang. The reanalysis datasets also showed significant negative correlations between temperature increase rate and elevation in this complex terrain region.
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BFBNIB, DOBA, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
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