•Fish pigmentation is one of the most important and easy-analyzed quality criteria.•Skin pigmentation serves as a signal to infer fish welfare and culture conditions.•Rearing conditions can ...negatively affect natural skin coloration of fish.
Skin pigmentation pattern is a species-specific characteristic that depends on the number and the spatial combination of several types of chromatophores. This feature can change during life, for example in the metamorphosis or reproductive cycle, or as a response to biotic and/or abiotic environmental cues (nutrition, UV incidence, surrounding luminosity, and social interactions). Fish skin pigmentation is one of the most important quality criteria dictating the market value of both aquaculture and ornamental species because it serves as an external signal to infer its welfare and the culture conditions used. For that reason, several studies have been conducted aiming to understand the mechanisms underlying fish pigmentation as well as the influence exerted by rearing conditions. In this context, the present review focuses on the current knowledge on endocrine regulation of fish pigmentation as well as on the aquaculture conditions affecting skin coloration. Available information on Iberoamerican fish species cultured is presented.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPUK
•Fish are excellent models for developmental neuroendocrine studies.•Neuroendocrine players involved in reproduction have specific developmental functions.•Alteration during the establishment of the ...reproductive network impact in adult life.
The hypothalamic-pituitary–gonadal axis is the main system that regulates reproduction in vertebrates through a complex network that involves different neuropeptides, neurotransmitters, and pituitary hormones. Considering that this axis is established early on life, the main goal of the present work is to gather information on its development and the actions of its components during early life stages. This review focuses on fish because their neuroanatomical characteristics make them excellent models to study neuroendocrine systems. The following points are discussed: i) developmental functions of the neuroendocrine components of this network, and ii) developmental disruptions that may impact adult reproduction. The importance of the components of this network and their susceptibility to external/internal signals that can alter their specific early functions and/or even the establishment of the reproductive axis, indicate that more studies are necessary to understand this complex and dynamic network.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone, GnIH, is named because of its function in birds and mammals; however, in other vertebrates this function is not yet clearly established. More than half of the ...vertebrate species are teleosts. This group is characterized by the 3R whole genome duplication, a fact that could have been responsible for the great phenotypic complexity and great variability in reproductive strategies and sexual behavior. In this context, we revise GnIH cell bodies and fibers distribution in adult brains of teleosts, discuss its relationship with GnRH variants and summarize the few reports available about the ontogeny of the GnIH system. Considering all the information presented in this review, we propose that in teleosts, GnIH could have other functions beyond reproduction or act as an integrative signal in the reproductive process. However, further studies are required in order to clarify the role of GnIH in this group including its involvement in development, a key stage that strongly impacts on adult life.
•GnIH and GnRH variants relationship analyzed by double labelling immunofluorescence.•No axo-somatic nor fiber-fiber contacts between GnIH and GnRH1.•Fiber to fiber contacts between GnIH and ...GnRH2.•GnIH expressing neurons co-expressed GnRH3 variant in the nucleus olfacto-retinalis.
Reproduction is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. The first neuropeptide identified that regulates this function was the decapeptide gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Nowadays, in gnatostomates, a number of GnRH variants have been identified and classified into three different types: GnRH1, GnRH2, and GnRH3. Almost 30 years later, a new peptide that inhibits gonadotropin synthesis and secretion was discovered and thus named as gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH). In avians and mammals, the interaction and regulation between GnRH and GnIH neurons has been widely studied; however, in other vertebrate groups there is little information about the relationship between these neurons. In previous works, three GnRH variants and a GnIH propeptide were characterized in Cichlasoma dimerus, and it was demonstrated that GnIH inhibited gonadotropins release in this species. Because no innervation was detected at the pituitary level, we speculate that GnIH would inhibit gonadotropins via GnRH. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the anatomical relationship between neurons expressing GnIH and the three GnRH variants by double labelling confocal immunofluorescence in adults of C. dimerus. Our results showed no apparent contacts between GnIH and GnRH1, fiber to fiber interactions between GnIH and GnRH2, and co-localization of GnIH and GnRH3 variant in neurons of the nucleus olfacto-retinalis. In conclusion, whether GnIH regulates the expression or secretion of GnRH1 in this species, an indirect modulation seems more plausible. Moreover, the present results suggest an interaction between GnIH and GnRH2 systems. Finally, new clues were provided to investigate the role of nucleus olfacto-retinalis cells and putative GnIH and GnRH3 interactions in the modulation of the reproductive network in teleost fish.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPUK
•First description of the neuroanatomical localization of GnIH in a holostean fish.•Four GnIH-immunoreactive populations and scattered neurons were identified.•A widespread distribution of ...GnIH-immunoreactive fibers was observed.•A. tropicus hypothalamic-pituitary system resembles that of other holostean fishes.
The Holostei group occupies a critical phylogenetic position as the sister group of the Teleostei. However, little is known about holostean pituitary anatomy or brain distribution of important reproductive neuropeptides, such as the gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH). Thus, the present study set out to characterize the structure of the pituitary and to localize GnIH-immunoreactive cells in the brain of Atractosteus tropicus from the viewpoint of comparative neuroanatomy. Juveniles of both sexes were processed for general histology and immunohistochemistry. Based on the differences in cell organization, morphology, and staining properties, the neurohypophysis and three regions in the adenohypophysis were identified: the rostral and proximal pars distalis (PPD) and the pars intermedia. This last region was found to be innervated by the neurohypophysis. This organization, together with the presence of a saccus vasculosus, resembles the general teleost pituitary organization. A vast number of blood vessels were also recognized between the infundibulum floor of the hypothalamus and the PPD, evidencing the characteristic presence of a median eminence and a portal system. However, this well-developed pituitary portal system resembles that of tetrapods. As regards the immunohistochemical localization of GnIH, we found four GnIH-immunoreactive (GnIH-ir) populations in three hypothalamic nuclei (suprachiasmatic, retrotuberal, and tuberal nuclei) and one in the diencephalon (prethalamic nucleus), as well as a few scattered neurons throughout the olfactory bulbs, the telencephalon, and the intersection between them. GnIH-ir fibers showed a widespread distribution over almost all brain regions, suggesting that GnIH function is not restricted to reproduction only. In conclusion, the present study describes, for the first time, the pituitary of A. tropicus and the neuroanatomical localization of GnIH in a holostean fish that exhibits a similar distribution pattern to that of teleosts and other vertebrates, suggesting a high degree of phylogenetic conservation of this system.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPUK
Abstract
The identification of skeletal elements, the analysis of their developmental sequence, and the time of their appearance during larval development are essential to broaden the knowledge of ...each fish species and to recognize skeletal abnormalities that may affect further fish performance. Therefore, this study aimed to provide a general description of the development of the entire skeleton highlighting its variability in
Cichlasoma dimerus
. Larvae of
C. dimersus
were stained with alcian blue and alizarin red from hatching to 25 days posthatching. Skeletogenesis began with the endoskeletal disk and some cartilage structures from the caudal fin and the splachnocranium, while the first bony structure observed was the cleithrum. When larvae reached the free‐swimming and exogenous feeding stage, mostly bones from the jaws, the branchial arches, and the opercle series evidenced some degree of ossification, suggesting that the ossification sequence of
C. dimerus
adjusts to physiological demands such as feeding and ventilation. The caudal region was the most variable regarding meristic counts and evidenced higher incidence of bone deformities. In conclusion, this work provides an overview of
C. dimerus
skeletogenesis and lays the groundwork for further studies on diverse topics, like developmental plasticity, rearing conditions, or phylogenetic relationships.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
The neuropeptide gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) plays an important role in the control of reproductive functions. Vertebrates possess multiple GnRH forms that are classified into three main ...groups, namely GnRH1, GnRH2, and GnRH3. In order to gain more insights into the
gene family in vertebrates, we sought to identify which paralogs of this family are present in cartilaginous fish. For this purpose, we searched the genomes and/or transcriptomes of three representative species of this group, the small-spotted catshark,
, the whale shark,
and the elephant shark
. In each species, we report the identification of three
genes. In catshark and whale shark, phylogenetic and synteny analysis showed that these three genes correspond to
, and
. In both species,
was found to encode a novel form of GnRH whose primary structure was determined as follows: QHWSFDLRPG. In elephant shark, the three genes correspond to GnRH1a and GnRH1b, two copies of the
gene, plus
. 3D structure prediction of the chondrichthyan GnRH-associated peptides (GAPs) revealed that catshark GAP1, GAP2, and elephant shark GAP2 peptides exhibit a helix-loop-helix (HLH) structure. This structure observed for many osteichthyan GAP1 and GAP2, may convey GAP biological activity. This HLH structure could not be observed for elephant shark GAP1a and GAP1b. As for all other GAP3 described so far, no typical 3D HLH structure was observed for catshark nor whale shark GAP3. RT-PCR analysis revealed that
, and
genes are differentially expressed in the catshark brain.
mRNA appeared predominant in the diencephalon while
and
mRNAs seemed to be most abundant in the mesencephalon and telencephalon, respectively. Taken together, our results show that the
gene repertoire of the vertebrate ancestor was entirely conserved in the chondrichthyan lineage but that the
gene was probably lost in holocephali. They also suggest that the three
neuronal systems previously described in the brain of bony vertebrates are also present in cartilaginous fish.
GnRH-associated peptide (GAP) is the C-terminal portion of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) preprohormone. Although it was reported in mammals that GAP may act as a prolactin-inhibiting ...factor and can be co-secreted with GnRH into the hypophyseal portal blood, GAP has been practically out of the research circuit for about 20 years. Comparative studies highlighted the low conservation of GAP primary amino acid sequences among vertebrates, contributing to consider that this peptide only participates in the folding or carrying process of GnRH. Considering that the three-dimensional (3D) structure of a protein may define its function, the aim of this study was to evaluate if GAP sequences and 3D structures are conserved in the vertebrate lineage. GAP sequences from various vertebrates were retrieved from databases. Analysis of primary amino acid sequence identity and similarity, molecular phylogeny, and prediction of 3D structures were performed. Amino acid sequence comparison and phylogeny analyses confirmed the large variation of GAP sequences throughout vertebrate radiation. In contrast, prediction of the 3D structure revealed a striking conservation of the 3D structure of GAP1 (GAP associated with the hypophysiotropic type 1 GnRH), despite low amino acid sequence conservation. This GAP1 peptide presented a typical helix-loop-helix (HLH) structure in all the vertebrate species analyzed. This HLH structure could also be predicted for GAP2 in some but not all vertebrate species and in none of the GAP3 analyzed. These results allowed us to infer that selective pressures have maintained GAP1 HLH structure throughout the vertebrate lineage. The conservation of the HLH motif, known to confer biological activity to various proteins, suggests that GAP1 peptides may exert some hypophysiotropic biological functions across vertebrate radiation.
Highlights ► Cichlasoma dimerus (cd) somatolactin (SL) belongs to the SLα sub-group. ► The cdSL receptor (cdSLR) is a member of the GHR1 receptor subgroup. ► cdSLR was identified in the epidermis and ...dermis of fish scales. ► cdSLR expression in skin increased in fish exposed to a black background. ► It is concomitant with increase of pituitary cdSLα and melanophore number in scales.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPUK
The first step for assessing and refining the nutritional requirements during the larval and early juvenile stages of a fish is the study of the ontogeny of digestive system functionality. The ...combination of these studies with ecological and anatomical knowledge of the species of interest establishes the base for facing one of the major aquaculture challenges: promoting larvae growth and survival. Considering this, changes in the activity of the main digestive (pancreatic and intestinal) enzymes during larval development of the agastric South America pejerrey (Odontesthes bonariensis) were described in the present work. Digestive enzymes for protein, lipid, and carbohydrate hydrolysis were present from the first-week post-hatching (6.85 ± 0.07 mm total length, TL). Changes in the activity of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and alkaline protease indicated that the exocrine pancreas in pejerrey achieves its functional development at the 2nd week post-hatching (9.22 ± 0.17 mm TL). Interestingly, α-amylase and maltase total activity progressively increased over development, suggesting that gradual incorporation of dietary carbohydrates in a feeding protocol may have a protein-sparing effect, as well as a cheap and fast way to obtain energy for the development and growth of pejerrey. The analysis of intestinal enzymes revealed that the typical shift between intracellular and luminal protein digestion that occurs during larval development in gastric species does not take place in pejerrey, indicating that in agastric species intracellular protein digestion plays a major role in comparison to luminal digestion during larval development. Contrary to gastric species, our results suggest that the ratio of alkaline phosphatase to leucine-aminopeptidase for evaluating gut maturation in agastric species is not recommended, and other parameters should be measured when evaluating the maturation process in fish larvae from this group of species.
•The ontogeny of digestive enzyme activity was studied in pejerrey, Odontesthes bonariensis, an agastric South American fish.•The activity of proteolytic pancreatic enzymes suggested that the exocrine pancreas in pejerrey achieves its functional development at 9.22 mm TL.•α-amylase and maltase total activity progressively increased over development.•The typical shift between intracellular and luminal protein digestion did not take place in pejerrey.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
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