► Review of imaging studies targeting effects of physical activity on cognition. ► Evidence from structural, functional and connectivity data in different age groups. ► Discriminative results for ...metabolic and coordinative exercise. ► Motor learning research compliments findings of coordination studies.
Physical activity has been shown to improve cognitive functioning. Research has largely focused on cognitive facilitation by cardiovascular exercise in older adults. Only few studies have investigated younger age groups or other types of physical activity. In this paper we review and summarize common results found in recent studies of metabolic (i.e. cardiovascular and resistance) and coordinative exercise. Findings from human motor learning are utilized to complement results on coordinative exercise. Results show that both types of exercise affect the brain differently. We propose possible mechanisms by which physical activity facilitates cognitive performance by briefly reviewing microscopic structural changes in animal research. Lastly, we highlight open research questions.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
When performing bimanual tasks, hands are typically not controlled individually but rather as a coupled system to achieve high spatiotemporal coordination. On a brain level, intrahemispheric and ...interhemispheric networks that control the left and right hand are necessary to exchange information between hemispheres and to couple movements. Behaviourally, coupling is, however, highly task‐specific requiring, for example, to maintain a specific relative phase in cyclic tasks (e.g., inphase or antiphase) or to perform a role differentiated task where one hand is modulating and the other hands is stabilizing and needs to be kept as still as possible (e.g., holding a notepad and writing on it). In this study, we used electroencephalography to investigate functional brain network characteristics (task‐related activation and connectivity) in bimanual force‐control tasks with different coordination modes: inphase, antiphase and role‐differentiated with the left‐ or right‐hand stabilizing and the other hand manipulating. We aimed to examine (1) how network characteristics differ with respect to the coordination mode and (2) how they are related to the performance. Results revealed task‐related differences in the overall activation and connectivity with role‐differentiated tasks leading to higher desynchronization as compared to inphase and antiphase tasks. In addition, we showed that the strength of bimanual coupling is modulated task specifically through left‐hemispheric networks including C3, FC3 and F3 electrodes. Results highlight the importance of the left frontocentral regions for bimanual coordination.
Task‐related differences in the overall activation and connectivity with role‐differentiated tasks leading to higher desynchronization as compared to inphase and antiphase tasks: Behavioural coupling is related with connectivity in left frontocentral networks including F3, FC3 and C3 and a bilateral network connecting FC1‐FC2.
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BFBNIB, DOBA, FZAB, GIS, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
The benefits of fitness for cognitive performance in healthy older adults have repeatedly been demonstrated. Animal studies, however, have revealed differential relationships between physical and ...motor fitness and brain metabolism. We therefore investigated whether for older humans different dimensions of fitness are differentially associated with cognitive performance and brain activation patterns. Seventy‐two participants (mean age 68.99 years, SD = 3.66; 52 females) completed four psychometric tests reflecting two primary abilities of higher cognitive functioning (executive control, perceptual speed) and a battery of fitness tests comprising two fitness dimensions (physical and motor fitness). We found that not only physical fitness indexed by cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength, but also motor fitness including movement speed, balance, motor coordination and flexibility showed a strong association with cognitive functioning. Additionally, functional brain imaging data revealed that physical and motor fitness were differentially related to cognitive processes. Results are discussed with regard to the compensation hypothesis and potential consequences for intervention work.
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BFBNIB, DOBA, FZAB, GIS, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
Driving is a complex cognitive-motor task that requires the continuous integration of multisensory information, cognitive processes, and motor actions. With higher age, driving becomes increasingly ...challenging as a result of naturally declining neurophysiological resources. Performing additional subtasks, such as conversations with passengers or interactions with in-vehicle devices (e.g., adjusting the radio), may further challenge neurocognitive resources that are required to maintain driving performance. Based on declining brain physiological resources and inferior neurocognitive functioning, older adults (OA) may show higher brain activation and larger performance decrements than younger adults (YA) when engaging in additional subtasks during driving. Age differences, however, may further vary for different neurocognitive task demands, such that driving performance of OA might be particularly affected by certain subtasks. In this study, we hence investigated the brain functional correlates of age differences in driving behavior during concurrent subtask performance in YA and OA. Our final sample consisted of thirty younger (21.80 ± 1.73y, 15 female) and thirty older (69.43 ± 3.30y, 12 female) regular drivers that drove along a typical rural road (25 - 30 min) in a driving simulator and performed three different concurrent subtasks that were presented auditorily or visually: typing a 3-digit number (TYPE), comparing traffic news and gas station prices (working memory, WM), and stating arguments (ARG). We measured variability in lateral car position, velocity, and following distance to a frontal lead car as the standard deviation from 0 to 15 s after subtask onset. Brain activity was continuously recorded using functional near-infrared spectroscopy over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Both YA and OA particularly varied in their lateral position during TYPE with a more pronounced effect in OA. For YA, in contrast, ARG led to higher variability in velocity compared to TYPE and WM, whereas OA showed no task-specific differences. Substantiating our behavioral findings, OA revealed the largest brain functional response to TYPE, while YA demonstrated a very distinct activation during ARG and smaller hemodynamic responses to TYPE and WM. Brain activity in the DLPFC was, overall, not significantly, but small to moderately related to certain behavioral performance parameters (mainly lateral position). We conclude that both OA and YA are vulnerable to distractive subtasks while driving. Age differences, however, seem to largely depend on neurocognitive task demands. OA may be at higher risk for accidents when performing visuo-motor subtasks (e.g., interacting with navigational systems) during driving while YA may be more (cognitively) distracted when talking to passengers.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Recent studies revealed a positive influence of physical activity on cognitive functioning in older adults. Studies that investigate the behavioral and neurophysiological effects of type and long ...term duration of physical training, however, are missing. We performed a 12-month longitudinal study to investigate the effects of cardiovascular and coordination training (control group: relaxation and stretching) on cognitive functions (executive control and perceptual speed) in older adults. We analyzed data of 44 participants aged 62-79 years. Participants were trained three times a week for 12 months. Their physical and cognitive performance was tested prior to training, and after 6 and 12 months. Changes in brain activation patterns were investigated using functional MRI. On the behavioral level, both experimental groups improved in executive functioning and perceptual speed but with differential effects on speed and accuracy. In line with the behavioral findings, neurophysiological results for executive control also revealed changes (increases and reductions) in brain activity for both interventions in frontal, parietal, and sensorimotor cortical areas. In contrast to the behavioral findings, neurophysiological changes were linear without indication of a plateau. In both intervention groups, prefrontal areas showed decreased activation after 6 and 12 months when performing an executive control task, as compared to the control group, indicating more efficient information processing. Furthermore, cardiovascular training was associated with an increased activation of the sensorimotor network, whereas coordination training was associated with increased activation in the visual-spatial network. Our data suggest that besides cardiovascular training also other types of physical activity improve cognition of older adults. The mechanisms, however, that underlie the performance changes seem to differ depending on the intervention.
Human aging is associated with structural and functional brain deteriorations and a corresponding cognitive decline. Exergaming (i.e., physically active video-gaming) has been supposed to attenuate ...age-related brain deteriorations and may even improve cognitive functions in healthy older adults. Effects of exergaming, however, vary largely across studies. Moreover, the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms by which exergaming may affect cognitive and brain function are still poorly understood. Therefore, we systematically reviewed the effects of exergame interventions on cognitive outcomes and neurophysiological correlates in healthy older adults (>60 years). After screening 2709 studies (Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, Pubmed, Scopus), we found 15 eligible studies, four of which comprised neurophysiological measures. Most studies reported within group improvements in exergamers and favorable interaction effects compared to passive controls. Fewer studies found superior effects of exergaming over physically active control groups and, if so, solely for executive functions. Regarding individual cognitive domains, results showed no consistence. Positive effects on neurophysiological outcomes were present in all respective studies. In summary, exergaming seems to be equally or slightly more effective than other physical interventions on cognitive functions in healthy older adults. Tailored interventions using well-considered exergames and intervention designs, however, may result in more distinct effects on cognitive functions.
Background
A multi-component training program holds promises for the elderly, but still has to be tested on its feasibility and effect in nursing homes.
Aims
The aim of this study was (1) to design a ...multi-component training program which improves physical functioning and psychosocial wellbeing and (2) to evaluate the feasibility of this intervention in nursing home residents.
Methods
This study is a two-arm, stratified-randomized controlled feasibility trail. Twenty-four nursing home residents (aged 83.7 ± 6.4, 21 women) were divided into an intervention and a waiting-list control group. The intervention group completed a multi-component training (including dual-task, dynamic balance, endurance and strength exercises) for 16 weeks (twice per week for 45–60 min). Primary outcomes were lower extremity functionality (SPPB), gait performance (GAITRite), health-related quality of life (SF-12) as well as life satisfaction (SWLS).
Results
Life satisfaction (SWLS) and physical functioning (SPPB) increased in the intervention group after training whereas the control group showed a decrease. Gait parameters could only be analyzed for
n
= 5 participants of the intervention group and
n
= 2 of the control group and showed no time differences for the intervention group. The mean number of participants was 12.5 ± 1.9 per session (attendance ranged between 66% and 90%).
Conclusion
A multi-component training seems (1) to lead to clinically relevant improvements in physical functioning as well as in psychosocial wellbeing and (2) to be feasible and well accepted in nursing home residents. Nevertheless, the complexity and progression of the program as well as the testing protocol have to be adapted. Further research should test the effectiveness of this adapted program in a larger sample size.
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EMUNI, FZAB, GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
•Frontal and parietal brain activation during real dual-task walking in older adults.•Higher dual-task related activation in frontal compared to parietal brain regions.•Positive correlation between ...frontal and parietal dual-task specific activations.•Negative relationship between brain activation and behavioral performance.•Results indicate neural inefficiency/dedifferentiation rather than compensation.
Walking while performing an additional cognitive task (dual-task walking; DT walking) is a common yet highly demanding behavior in daily life. Previous neuroimaging studies have shown that performance declines from single-task (ST) to DT conditions are accompanied by increased prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity. This increment is particularly pronounced in older adults and has been explained either by compensation, dedifferentiation, or inefficient task processing in fronto-parietal circuits. However, there is only limited evidence for the hypothesized fronto-parietal activity changes measured under real-life conditions such as walking. In this study, we therefore assessed brain activity in PFC and parietal lobe (PL), to investigate whether higher PFC activation during DT walking in older adults is related to compensation, dedifferentiation, or neural inefficiency. Fifty-six healthy older adults (69.11 ± 4.19 years, 30 female) completed three tasks (treadmill walking at 1 m/s, Stroop task, Serial 3′s task) under ST and DT conditions (Walking + Stroop, Walking + Serial 3′s), and a baseline standing task. Behavioral outcomes were step time variability (Walking), Balance Integration Score BIS (Stroop), and number of correct calculations S3corr (Serial 3′s). Brain activity was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) over ventrolateral and dorsolateral PFC (vlPFC, dlPFC) and inferior and superior PL (iPL, sPL). Neurophysiological outcome measures were oxygenated (HbO2) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (HbR). Linear mixed models with follow-up estimated marginal means contrasts were applied to investigate region-specific upregulations of brain activation from ST to DT conditions. Furthermore, the relationships of DT-specific activations across all brain regions was analyzed as well as the relationship between changes in brain activation and changes in behavioral performance from ST to DT. Data indicated the expected upregulation from ST to DT and that DT-related upregulation was more pronounced in PFC (particularly in vlPFC) than in PL regions. Activation increases from ST to DT were positively correlated between all brain regions, and higher brain activation changes predicted higher declines in behavioral performance from ST to DT. Results were largely consistent for both DTs (Stroop and Serial 3′s). These findings more likely suggest neural inefficiency and dedifferentiation in PFC and PL rather than fronto-parietal compensation during DT walking in older adults. Findings have implications for interpreting and promoting efficacy of long-term interventions to improve DT walking in older persons.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Background
Web‐based, theory‐driven interventions effectively promote older adults’ physical activity. Social‐cognitive mechanisms of their effect on stage of change need to be further researched.
...Methods
Older adults were randomly allocated to intervention group 1 (10‐week online physical activity program), intervention group 2 (same program plus activity tracker), or delayed intervention control group; n = 351 were analyzed (59.6% of originally allocated individuals). Stages of change for recommended endurance and strength training and social‐cognitive predictors of physical activity were assessed using questionnaires at baseline and follow‐up. Intervention effects and mediation were investigated using mixed‐effects ANOVA and ordinal least squares regression.
Results
Direct effects on stage of change were found for intervention group 1 regarding endurance training (bintervention group 1 = 0.44, 95% confidence interval 0.15, 0.73), and both groups regarding strength training (bintervention group 1 = 1.02, 0.71, 1.33, bintervention group 2 = 1.24, 0.92, 1.56). Social‐cognitive predictor changes in task self‐efficacy, intention, and action planning explained intervention effect on stage of change, but not to the full extent.
Conclusions
The results indicate significant web‐based intervention effects on physical activity stage, partly mediated by changes in task self‐efficacy, intention, and action planning.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
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