In order to improve the effectiveness of shale gas stimulated reservoir volume (SRV), it is necessary to evaluate and study the permeability of different types of induced fractures in shale and its ...influential factors. In this paper, the mineral composition characteristics, reservoir pore and fracture characteristics of shale were investigated, and the permeability of three types of induced fractures in shale (i.e., in-situ closed type, shear self-propped type and single-layer propped type) was tested. Besides, the effects of fracture type, fracture surface roughness, carbonate content, shale bedding and confining pressure on the permeability of induced fractures in shale reservoirs were studied systematically. The following research results were obtained. First, the permeability–pressure relationship of in-situ closed fracture is in accordance with the Walsh theory. The permeability decreases with the increase of confining pressure and it is in the range of 0.13–16.75 mD. In-situ closed fracture plays the same role in increasing the productivity of shale gas reservoirs with or without proppant filling or dislocation. Second, compared with in-situ closed fracture permeability, the shear self-propped fracture permeability is 1–2 orders of magnitude (7.53–88.48 mD) higher, and single-layer propped fracture permeability is 2–3 orders of magnitude (9.98–771.82 mD) higher. Third, the larger the fracture surface roughness, the higher the fracture permeability. And there is a better positive correlation between the fractal dimension and the fracture permeability. Fourth, the permeability–pressure relationship of shear self-propped fracture and single-layer propped fracture is, to some extent, deviated from the Walsh theory, which reflects the influence of self-propped point crushing, proppant embedding and crushing. In conclusion, the experimental results can be used as the reference for the selection of shale fracturing technologies and the optimization of parameters. Keywords: Shale gas, Stimulated reservoir volume (SRV), Fracture permeability, Roughness, In-situ closed fracture, Shear self-propped fracture, Laboratory test
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
A series of laboratory fracturing experiments was performed on samples mined from an outcrop of the Silurian Longmaxi Formation shale in the Sichuan Basin, using a true triaxial fracturing simulation ...system. To reveal the characteristics of acoustic emission (AE) response in hydraulic fracture (HF) propagation, the HF propagation geometry obtained by specimen splitting and CT scanning technology was compared with the interpretation results of AE monitoring. And the difference of hypocenter mechanism between hydraulically connected and unconnected regions was further discussed. Experimental results show that the AE events distribution indicates well the internal fractures geometry of the rock samples. Numerous AE events occur and concentrate around the wellbore where the HF initiated. Sparse AE events were presented nearby bedding planes (BPs) activated by the HF. AE events tended to be denser where HF geometry was more complex. The hydraulically connected region was obviously distinct with the spatial distribution of AE events, which resulted in the overestimation of stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) based on micro-seismic mapping result. Both tensile and shear events occurred in the zone connected by the HFs, while only shear events were observed around BPs which were not hydraulically connected. Thus, the hydraulically connected and unconnected region can be identified in accordance with the hypocenter mechanism, which is beneficial to improve the accuracy of SRV evaluation.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Matrix permeability is a key factor in determining long term gas production from shale reservoirs – requiring that it is determined under true reservoir conditions. We suggest a variable pressure ...gradient (VPG) protocol to measure shale matrix permeability using real reservoir fluids in powdered samples. The VPG method is described and a mathematical protocol for its analysis is developed. The first measures gas fractional production rate history under constant external pressure for each production stage and with a designated pressure gradient. The second establishes the mathematical protocol for analysis using pseudo-pressure to accommodate both the effect of gas pressure-dependent PVT parameters and desorption rate coefficient. The matrix permeability is determined by matching the solution of the model with the experimental data. The model fits the experimental data well when the fractional production is <0.75. Shale matrix permeability is calculated in the order of magnitude of 10−7–10−6 md. Methane permeability decreases with a decrease in both average pore pressure and particle size of the individual component grains. Permeability considerably more sensitive to changes in desorption rate coefficient than flow regimes. Compared with current small pressure gradient (SPG) methods, the VPG method is considerably more applicable to actual gas production and reduces to the SPG method under simplified boundary conditions. Although some approximate treatments are used for establishing the VPG method and some flow mechanisms are not considered, this study still provides an information-rich technique to determine shale matrix permeability at conditions close to reality.
•A variable pressure gradient protocol to measure shale matrix permeability with powdered samples is proposed.•A mathematical model which accommodates gas desorption, viscosity and compressibility is established.•An approximate solution of mathematical model is obtained.•Permeability and desorption rate coefficient are determined by fitting experimental data.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
The first fractured shale gas well of China was constructed in 2010. After 10 years of development, China has become the second country that possesses the core technology of shale gas development ...around the world, realized the shale gas fracturing techniques from zero to one and from lagging to partially leading, and constructed the fracturing theory and technology system suitable for middle–shallow marine shale gas exploitation. In order to provide beneficial guidance for the efficient exploitation of shale gas in China in the future, this paper comprehensively reviews development history and status of domestic fundamental theories, optimized design methods, fluid systems, tools and technologies of shale gas fracturing and summarizes the research results in fundamental theories and optimized design methods, such as fracturing sweet-spot cognition, fracture network propagation simulation and control, rock hydration and flowback control, and SRV (stimulated reservoir volume) evaluation and characterization. The development and application of slick-water fracturing fluid system and new fracturing fluid with little or no water is discussed. The development and independent research & development level of multi-stage fracturing tools are evaluated, including drillable composite plug, soluble plug, large-diameter plug and casing cementing sleeve. The implementation situations of field technologies and processes are illustrated, including the early conventional multi-stage multi-cluster fracturing and the current “dense cluster” fracturing and temporary plugging fracturing. Based on this, the current challenges to domestic shale gas fracturing technologies are analyzed systematically, and the development direction of related technologies is forecast. In conclusion, it is necessary for China to continuously research the fracturing theories, technologies and methods suitable for domestic deep and ultra-deep marine shale gas, terrestrial shale gas and transitional shale gas to facilitate the future efficient development of shale gas in China.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Deep shale has gradually become a focus point for unconventional natural gas exploration and development in China and even the world. The key to deep shale development is the fracability evaluation ...of a reservoir; conventional evaluation methods cannot provide accurate evaluations of deep shale fracability under high confining pressures. In this study, experimental methods are used to obtain the mechanical parameters, mineral composition, and stress–strain characteristics of shale. The fracture complexity coefficient based on the fractal dimension and fracture angle is defined by analyzing the fracture morphology of shale samples. Using the rock fracturing complexity as an index, the weight coefficients of different factors for the shale fracture morphology are obtained, thus establishing a new evaluation model for the deep shale brittleness index. The results show that the Young's modulus, dilatancy angle, and peak strain are the main factors affecting the complexity of shale fractures. The gray correlation theory is used to calculate the weights of various factors in the model. The weight coefficients of the Young's modulus, dilatancy angle, and peak strain on the rock brittleness index are 0.262, 0.353, and 0.385, respectively. Based on this, a novel method for evaluating the fracability of deep shale using the brittleness index is proposed. The fracability index of the horizontal section of the deep shale gas well in this area was calculated, and the location of the fracturing perforation cluster was optimized accordingly. This technology has been successfully applied in more than 10 deep shale gas wells in the southern Sichuan Basin, effectively reducing the fracturing pressure by 5–10 MPa, increasing the average daily production of a single well by 15.3 × 104 m3. This paper proposes a novel fracability evaluation method for deep shale based on the brittleness index, which provides a reference for optimizing deep shale fracturing design.
Experiments on shale reservoirs plugs hydration QIAN, Bin; ZHU, Juhui; YANG, Hai ...
Petroleum exploration and development,
August 2017, 2017-08-00, 2017-08-01, Volume:
44, Issue:
4
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
By using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and CT scanning technologies, hydration experiments have been conducted on shale samples from the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in Zhaotong area in North ...Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces under the confining pressure of 10 MPa to study the effect of hydration on the propagation of pores and natural fractures in shale formation. The results show that the hydration not only offsets the permeability drop caused by confining pressure, but makes the fracture network more complicated, the connection between fractures and pores better with larger volume, and permeability higher by facilitating the dilation, propagation and cross-connection of primary pores, natural fractures, and newly created micro-fractures; hydration damage mainly occurs along the bedding plane or the direction of primary fractures; samples with better-developed primary pores and fractures are most affected by hydration, samples with best-developed primary pores and natural fractures are less affected by hydration, samples with only pores are least affected by hydration; and the hydration intensity of shale plugs is affected by the development of primary pores and fractures, clay content, brittleness index, confining pressure and the hydration duration jointly. Therefore, in shale reservoir stimulation, it is suggested that the pumping schedule, shut-in operation or clean-up with small choke during early flow-back process be considered according to the features of shale reservoir to enhance the complexity and connection of facture network and improve the stimulation effect.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
In this paper, shale gas cores from the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the Zhaotong National Shale Gas Demonstration Area were selected to study the hydration effect of different fluids on the ...fracture morphology inside the shale, the rock tensile strength and the Brazilian tensile failure mode. Fresh water and slick water were adopted for hydration pretreatments and the CT technique was used to compare the changes of the fabric in the shale. Then, Brazilian tensile tests were carried out to study the tensile strength and tensile failure modes of the shale specimen after hydration pretreatment. Finally, two horizontal wells in the study area were selected to perform pilot tests of hydration pretreatment in their fracturing operation sites. And the following research results were obtained. First, in the process of spontaneous imbibition, the hydration effect of fresh water is superior to that of slick water in promoting the fracture complexity of marine shale in the same hydration duration. Second, fresh water has greater surface tension and lower viscosity and its hydration effect can not only promote the propagation of original fractures but induce new micro-fractures or branches, while the hydration effect of slick water mainly promotes the propagation of original fractures. Third, due to hydration effect, marine shale is damaged and its tensile strength is reduced. After the hydration pretreatment by fresh water and slick water, the tensile strength of the shale specimens are reduced by 35.6% and 18.1%, respectively. Fourth, according to the propagation paths of main fractures, the Brazilian tensile failure modes of hydrated shale can be divided into four types (i.e., step shaped, dog-leg shaped, branching shaped and arc shaped) or their combinations, while the tensile failure mode of unhydrated shale is only a straight line. Fifth, hydration effect can effectively increase the complexity of the hydraulic fractures in marine shale, so if the conditions permit, it is recommended to inject a certain amount of fresh water at a high pumping rate within the limited pressure after perforation and to shut in the well until the hydraulic fracturing operation. And in order to reduce the difficulties of pumping the proppant during the hydraulic fracturing operation, a pumping strategy of “low proppant concentration, large volume of slurries” can be adopted to reach the expected proppant volume.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
The development of shale gas is faced with low reservoir porosity, low reservoir permeability and high formation fracture pressure. In order to deal with these problems, this paper selected shale ...samples from the bottom of the Lower Silurian Longmaxi–Wufeng Formation of Upper Ordovician in the Weiyuan Block of the southern Sichuan Basin as the research objects. After acid dissolution experiments were carried out, the microstructures and the mechanical parameters of shale after acidizing treatment were investigated by means of X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and triaxial mechanical test. Then, the effect of acidizing treatment on the microstructures and the mechanical properties of shale were analyzed. And the following research results were obtained. First, after acidizing treatment, the carbonate mineral content of shale decreases and the number and size of pores increase. In the process of dissolution, micro-fractures occur, leading to the increase of shale porosity and permeability. Second, after acidizing treatment, the mechanical properties of shale change. Its deformation mode transforms gradually from elastic–brittle deformation to elastic–plastic deformation, and its fracture mode transits from brittle to semi-brittle and semi-ductile. Third, after shale is treated with the acid with the concentration of 15% for 240 min, its permeability is increased by 3.09 times. After 3 days, its porosity is increased by 1.65 times. And after 7 days, its compressive strength, Young's modulus and brittleness index are decreased by 50.1%, 58.1% and 32.8%, respectively. Fourth, the mechanical parameters of shale of the Longmaxi–Wufeng Formation in the Weiyuan Block is in a quadratic relationship with an average pore size and permeability and in a quadratic or linear relationship with porosity, and their correlation is strong. In conclusion, the research results provide technical support for the prediction of the mechanical parameters of shale in this block after acidizing treatment and for the design of acid fracturing scheme.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Shale gas is becoming an important component of the global energy supply, with permeability a critical controlling factor for long‐term gas production. Obvious deviation may exist between helium ...permeability determined using small pressure gradient (SPG) methods and methane permeability obtained under actual field production with variable pressure gradients (VPG). In order to more accurately evaluate the matrix permeability of shale, a VPG method using real gas (rather than He) is established to render permeability measurements that are more representative of reservoir conditions and hence response. Dynamic methane production experiments were performed to measure permeability using the annular space in the shale cores. For each production stage, boundary pressure is maintained at a constant and the gas production with time is measured on the basis of volume change history in the measuring pump. A mathematical model explicitly accommodating gas desorption uses pseudo‐pressure and pseudo‐time to accommodate the effects of variations in pressure‐dependent PVT parameters. Analytical and semi‐analytical solutions to the model are obtained and discussed. These provide a convenient approach to estimate radial permeability in the core by nonlinear fitting to match the semi‐analytical solution with the recorded gas production data. Results indicate that the radial permeability of the shale determined using methane is in the range of 1×10−6 – 1×10−5 mD and decreases with a decrease in average pore pressure. This is contrary to the observed change in permeability estimated using helium. Bedding geometry has a significant influence on shale permeability with permeability in parallel bedding orientation larger than that in perpendicular bedding orientation. The superiority of the VPG method is confirmed by comparing permeability test results obtained from both VPG and SPG methods. Although several assumptions are used, the results obtained from the VPG method with reservoir gas are much closer to reality and may be directly used for actual gas production evaluation and prediction, through accommodating realistic pressure dependent impacts.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SAZU, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
The monitoring results of production logging show that almost one third of perforation clusters produce no or less gas after volumetric fracturing is initially applied in shale gas reservoirs. ...Besides, the production decline after the commissioning is commonly faster. In this paper, a fracture network prediction model and a fracturing well productivity prediction model were established based on microseismic interpretation data and hydraulic fracture network propagation results. After petrophysics, microseism, production performance were taken into consideration comprehensively, shale re-fracturing development potential evaluation index (RDPEI) was proposed. Then, a re-fracturing design and evaluation method was developed and targeted interval selection and evaluation was realized and applied on site. And the following research results were obtained. First, due to the heterogeneity of natural fractures, hydraulic fracture networks are more different, so an obvious “dead gas zone” can be easily formed and its re-fracturing potential is high. Second, the initial hydraulic fracture network is more affected by natural fractures. The main part of a fracture network propagates along the direction of maximum horizontal major stress, the fractures in regional stimulated intervals propagate in the form of double wing, and the length of a liquid swept fracture network is 52–70% of seismic interpretation result. Third, the RDPEI model avoids the limitations of single factor analysis and realizes the quantitative prediction on three types of indexes of recoverability, compressibility and re-fracturing. Fourth, re-fracturing of the case well is remarkable in stimulation effect. Its shale gas productivity is increased by 38.9%, and its cumulative gas production in one year is increased by 62.5%. In conclusion, re-fracturing is an effective and feasible method for improving the single well ultimate recovery reserves of shale gas. This method provides a theoretical and technical support for the selection and effect evaluation of re-fracturing intervals in shale-gas horizontal wells. Keywords: Shale gas, Re-fracturing, Productivity, Prediction, Fracture network propagation, Microseismic, Production decline, Single-well ultimate recoverable reserves
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
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