Highly educated individuals possessing a net worth exceeding $100,000 are the most likely to enter self-employment. Recent studies have linked personal wealth holdings positively to self-employment ...entry, but educational attainment has been a weak and erratic determinant of self-employment status. Although barriers such as financial capital constraints clearly shape self-employment entry decisions, the nature of these barriers varies substantially across small business industry groups. The strong role often played by education and work experience in identifying self-employment entrants is often obscured by inappropriate aggregation across industries.
Entry barriers shape not only the decision to enter self-employment but also the types of industries that potential business owners are likely to enter. The likelihood of self-employment in skilled services increases greatly as level of education rises, whereas the opposite situation prevails in construction. The major barriers to self-employment entry in manufacturing and wholesaling are clearly financial in nature. In contrast, the primary route to self-employment in the growing skilled services industries is the attainment of advanced educational credentials; personal wealth holdings are secondary.
Several factors perform consistently in identifying self-employment entry across industries. The likelihood of entry increases with age, peaking as people approach age 40 and then leveling out. African-Americans are less likely to pursue self-employment than nonminorities.
Factors associated with self-employment entry among women are quite different than those that predict male entry, but this partially reflects the differing industry concentrations among men and women. Women are more likely to enter self-employment in skilled services fields. Thus, advanced education and work experience—the human capital variables—are the strongest predictors of female entrants.
Barriers to self-employment are most binding to those who possess neither the human capital nor the financial capital traits associated with entry. For others, barriers need not deny access to self-employment—rather, they may simply shape the industry choice. This study is based upon the 1984 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), a longitudinal survey of households carried out by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Entry into self-employment was observed over a 32-month period for a sample of 24,428 adults.
Full text
Available for:
IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK
This paper explores the theme of fragmentation and focuses specifically on the Sikh massacres of 1984 which followed the assassination of the Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi when she was gunned ...down by her Sikh body guards. Thirty two years down the line no perpetrators of the mob attacks and mass killings of the Sikhs have been brought to justice. The Indian sub-continent enfolds, within what appears to be the borders of a single nation, a bewildering complex of racial religious, social and cultural identities and any attempt to over-simplify the forces of division and conflict runs the risk of gross misrepresentation. More recently, the deliberated muting of the issues of justice against the Sikhs are apparent in the banning of the two latest films on the subject. In the present paper three short films have been analysed: "Injustice 1984," directed by Jarnail Singh; "Jagjeet" (2010), directed by Kavanjit Singh and "Kush" (2013), directed by Subhashish Bhutiani. These films depict real-life stories of persons from the Sikh community and explore the impact of religious intolerance and the violence of the Sikh massacres from the perspective of the victims. It seeks to highlight concerns regarding religious intolerance, questions of identity, legal silences and deliberated muting of the subject over the past years and the need for a complex critical evaluation of the responsibility of the state and its socio-institutional bodies towards its citizens.
PDF