We develop a model in which realisations of an ex ante uncertain domestic policy environment can make it attractive to a sovereign nation to renege on an international agreement. We show, in a fairly ...general setting in which the likelihood of exit is affected by the degree of cooperation, that the possibility of exit reduces the optimal degree of initial cooperation. “Full” cooperation will never be optimal, and the optimal degree of cooperation will never be such as to “squeeze out” any possibility of exit. However, an increase in global uncertainty may imply an increase in cooperation when exit risks are already large to begin with.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Indonesia cannot close eyes that cooperation with other countries is needed .Different interests and the source of the power possessed make the state independent of one another .Cooperation between ...countries can occurred in agreed to an international agreement .The national interest and public interest broad should be included in International Agreement to other countries , do not get international treaties approved by the government torment the people. Hence , legal basis international treaties in Indonesia must be clear and firmly , to avoid possible in the practice of especially with regard to the ratification of a treaty. Do not get obscurity legal basis cause financial losses for the state especially the people
We examine whether changes of government influence compliance with international agreements. We investigate compliance with the NATO two percent target to which all NATO countries committed ...themselves during the NATO summit in Wales in 2014. The dataset includes the military expenditure by NATO countries over the period 2010-2018. The results suggest that countries that do not (yet) comply with the two percent target have smaller growth rates in military expenditure relative to GDP when they experienced a large change of government, e.g. a change from a rightwing to a leftwing government, than countries that did not experience such a large change of government since the NATO summit in 2014. Countries that experienced a large change of government are, thus, less likely to comply with the two percent target. Future research should examine the credibility problem of national governments in other international agreements too.
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BFBNIB, NUK, PILJ, SAZU, UL, UM, UPUK
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We study countries’ compliance with the targets pledged in international climate-change agreements and the impact of those agreements and specific climate laws and policies on greenhouse-gas ...emissions and economic outcomes. To do so, we compile and codify data on international agreements and measures enacted at the national and sub-national levels. We find that compliance with targets has been mixed. Still, countries that signed the Kyoto Protocol or the Copenhagen Accord experienced significant reductions in emissions when compared to non-signatories. Having quantifiable targets led to further reductions. Effects from the Paris Agreement are not yet evident in the data. Carbon taxes and the introduction of emission-trading schemes led to material reductions in emissions. Other climate laws or policies do not appear to have had, individually, a material effect on emissions. The impact on GDP growth or inflation from most measures was largely insignificant. Overall, much more ambitious targets would be needed to offset the impact of economic and population growth on emissions and contain the expansion of the stock of gases.
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IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, SAZU, UL, UM, UPUK
Recently, study abroad and elective programs have been facilitated via university partnerships based on student-exchange agreements. This study examined international medical student exchange ...agreements, focusing on reciprocity and stratification in the Japanese context. An empirical analysis was conducted using 581 agreements involving student exchanges with medical institutions in foreign countries based on a survey conducted by the Japanese Ministry of Education. We found that the average reciprocity rate via mutual tuition waivers was 52.84%: equivalent in Asia, slightly lower in Europe (49.61%), and higher in North America (58.06%). Europe has a balanced inbound and outbound exchange, Asia has a higher inbound exchange, and North America has an excess of outbound exchange from Japan. Moreover, selective institutions, such as former imperial or medical universities, have more than twice the number of agreements per university compared to others. In conclusion, it can be observed that international medical university partnerships are stratified, and reciprocity is intertwined with tuition waivers and the number of exchange students in the partnering institutions. As the results highlight the distinct characteristics of international education partnerships in Japan’s medical field compared to partnerships in all academic fields, it is necessary to investigate and develop international partnerships separately by field.
In 2015, 193 countries committed to 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG/SDGs). Assessing the impacts of policies or actions on SDGs can help countries to improve actions towards achieving SDGs. ...There is a need for quantitative methods for assessing the impacts of international agreements on regional SDGs. To fill this research gap, we constructed a composite methodological framework, including a difference-in-differences (DID) model (based on the interactions between SDGs), a lag-effects model and a difference-in-difference-in-differences (DDD) model. Specifically, the DID and lag-effects models were used to analyze the basic effects of the agreement and the effects lag period. The DDD model was used to analyze the impacts of heterogeneity among countries on the outcomes of the agreement. We aim to construct a general methodological framework that can assess the impacts of an agreement on any one SDG. To test this method empirically, we chose the “Belt and Road” Initiative (BRI) and assessed its effects on SDG 1 (no poverty), evaluating data from 20 countries, 15 of which participated in the BRI. The empirical results showed that SDG 1 exhibits spatial agglomeration and spillover effects, and the impacts of BRI may be underestimated if the spatial characteristics are not considered. The BRI appears to promote SDG 1 in 15 participating countries, but the effects have a 2-year lag. The positive effects of BRI on SDG 1 are most pronounced in the 12 upper-middle- and high-income countries among the 15 participating countries. Finally, we analyzed the advantages and limitations of the methodological framework.
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•A method to assess the impacts of agreements on SDGs was constructed and tested.•The spatial spillover effects were considered in the assessment framework.•The “Belt and Road” Initiative can promote SDG 1 in 15 countries, but the effects have a 2-year lag.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
By the mid of twentieth century, seafarers labor market was organised on a national level, with strong barrers. With the growth of rogue flag, start in the 70's and neoliberalism politicsin the 90's, ...it has been transformed into a globalised labor market. The transition in East European countries toward market and the enlargement of the European Union have increased the deregulation of seafarer labor market. It lead west european union to cooperate with transnationalism unionism, while employers and union from east european countries learn collective bargaining. Seafarer wages in Europa begin to converge while they still diverge in onshore industry.
Au milieu du 20e siècle le travail maritime s’effectuait sur des bases nationales et protégées, alors qu’à partir du développement des pavillons de complaisance dans les années 1970, puis avec les ...progrès du néolibéralisme dans les années 1990, un modèle de travail globalisé s’est développé dans la marine de commerce. La transition des économies socialistes de l’Est européen vers l’économie de marché, puis l’élargissement de l’Union européenne, ont amené de nouveaux marins sur ce marché. Cette situation a incité les organisations syndicales d’Europe de l’Ouest à se rapprocher du syndicalisme transnational, tandis qu’employeurs et syndicats des pays d’Europe centrale et orientale (PECO) devaient acquérir la pratique de la négociation collective. Les salaires des marins en Europe ont convergé, alors qu’ils continuaient de diverger dans l’industrie à terre.
By the mid of twentieth century, seafarers labor market was organised on a national level, with strong barrers. With the growth of rogue flag, start in the 70's and neoliberalism politicsin the 90's, it has been transformed into a globalised labor market. The transition in East European countries toward market and the enlargement of the European Union have increased the deregulation of seafarer labor market. It lead west european union to cooperate with transnationalism unionism, while employers and union from east european countries learn collective bargaining. Seafarer wages in Europa begin to converge while they still diverge in onshore industry.
There are mainly 3 international organizations for Antarctic tourism management. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM), the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP), and the ...International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is an international agreement that must be followed by all Antarctic activities. Antarctic tourism activities should maintain fundamental values and principles of the Antarctic Treaty System. Safeguarding peace, cooperation on the basis of freedom of scientific research and comprehensive environmental protection are three pillars of the ATS. The Environmental Protocol entered into force after being signed by the Consultative Parties in 1998. Based on the Protocol, a prior environmental impact assessment (EIA) must be prepared for tourist activities. Each proposal for an activity must be subjected to a preliminary assessment (PA), an initial environmental evaluation (IEE) or a comprehensive environmental evaluation (CEE), depend
We consider two democratic countries, where each of country's government has to decide whether to sign a bilateral agreement to produce a public good where both countries' citizens will benefit. The ...production cost is funded by tolls charged by each country to those citizens who are using the public good. The bilateral agreement can be based on two alternatives: (i) a non-cooperative agreement and (ii) a cooperative agreement. Both alternatives have the same constraint of the status-quo i.e. at least half of the citizens must be satisfied with the agreement so that ruling party can ensure that it can be re-elected under the pair wise voting rule. In this setup, we find that the non-cooperative agreement is dominant over the cooperative agreement in terms of welfare. Later, we drop the status quo constraint from the cooperative agreement and find that (a) under symmetric benefit case (i.e. where both countries have the same level of benefit from a public good), the non-cooperative agreement is weakly dominant over the cooperative agreement in terms of welfare; and (b) under the asymmetric benefit case the complete cooperation is not possible. Finally, we show that, under certain conditions, the welfare of the Nash Bargaining Solution (NBS) is equivalent to the welfare of non-cooperative agreement with the status-quo. Furthermore, although the welfare of NBS is higher under asymmetric expected benefits, it is possible that one ruling party loses its majority votes as the majority are not satisfied with the bilateral agreement. Therefore, ex-post, it is possible that one country will renege on such a cooperative agreement.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
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