•Expanded polystyrene (EPS) has offered solutions to many construction problems.•Manufacturing process, physical and mechanical properties of EPS are reviewed.•Applications of EPS as lightweight fill ...in pavement construction with case studies.•Design and construction issues and areas for research for the application of EPS.•Limitations and quality assurance for the use of EPS in pavements are explored.
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) has offered solutions to many civil engineering problems associated with pavement construction. Issues, such as the construction of pavements on low bearing capacity subgrade soils (such as peats and clays), or in regions with severe winters, and the construction of pavements over underground services, have all been overcome with the use of EPS geofoam. This material is used for many pavement applications. These include the use of EPS geofoam as a lightweight fill, as a thermal insulator, a vibration dampener, and for the protection of underground services. Unfortunately, there are a number of barriers that are stopping the use of EPS geofoam from becoming standard worldwide. More has to be done to develop and proliferate technical knowledge to avoid the inefficient, and even the incorrect use of EPS geofoam. There is also room for research in the development of new and innovative applications for the use of EPS geofoam, and for the development of updated standards and test procedures. To facilitate research in these areas, this review paper discusses the design considerations, limitations, and quality assurance procedures for the use of EPS in pavement applications, while paying special attention to the areas of weakness for which recommendations are made. Furthermore, this review paper details historic case studies in which EPS was used, as well as discusses the mechanical properties of EPS, and, finally, its manufacturing process.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
One-pot synthesis of functional material from waste expanded polystyrene foam, which displays good adsorption performance and reusability for dyes.
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•Waste expanded polystyrene foam is ...transformed into adsorbent.•Adsorbent shows rapid adsorption, high adsorption capacity and good reusability.•Adsorbent shows excellent adaptability to pH and salt solutions.•Adsorbent can easily realize continuous column adsorption process.•Easy adsorption and desorption to achieve the separation of dyes.
Many researchers focus on the conversion of waste into reusable materials in recent years. In this study, waste expanded polystyrene foam (WEPS) and 1,2,4-benzenetricarboxylic anhydride (BTA) were used as raw materials to prepare recyclable acylating waste expanded polystyrene adsorbent (WEPS-BTA) by Friedel-Crafts reaction and to recover dyes effectively. The WEPS-BTA was characterized by FT-IR, TGA, BET and SEM. WEPS-BTA showed good performance in a wide range of pH (2–12) and high concentration brine (0.2 M). The maximum adsorption capacity to methylene blue, safranine T, and malachite green were 859.9, 1036.7, and 1197.3 mg/g, respectively. It was found that Freundlich model and pseudo-second-order kinetics could describe the adsorption behavior. This is a heterogeneous, endothermic, and spontaneous multiple adsorption process. The plausible adsorption mechanism was explained by kinetic model, thermodynamic discussion, SEM-EDS, XPS and FT-IR. In addition, WEPS-BTA showed satisfactory reusability without significant loss of the removal efficiency of the three dyes after 5 cycles. Therefore, WEPS-BTA has the advantages of simple synthesis, efficient adsorption, easy recycling and reuse, and stable performance in a harsh environment. Converting waste polystyrene foam to an adsorbent is an economic way of handling waste and providing material for wastewater remediation simultaneously.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor larvae) are capable of biodegrading polystyrene (PS) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). This study tested biodegradation of one expanded PS (EPS) with a ...weight-average molecular weight (Mw) 256.4 kDa and two LDPE foams with respective Mw of 130.6 kDa (PE-1) and 288.7 kDa (PE-2) in T. monitor larvae obtained in Beijing, China. The larvae consumed EPS and both LDPEs over a 60 day. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analyses of frass confirmed the formation of new oxygen-containing functional groups, as well as a change in physical property and chemical modification, indicating that biodegradation of EPS and LDPE occurred. Gel permeation chromatography analysis confirmed broad depolymerization of EPS and PE-1 (i.e., a decrease in both Mw and a number-average molecular weight (Mn)) but revealed limited extent depolymerization of PE-2 (i.e., increase in Mn and decrease in Mw). For all materials, the size-average molecular weight (Mz) was decreased. Biodegradation and oxidation of EPS and LDPE were confirmed using FTIR and TGA analysis. Depression of gut microbes by the antibiotic gentamicin resulted in significant inhibition of EPS depolymerization but did not stop LDPE depolymerization, resulting in the increase in Mn and revealing that PS biodegradation was gut microbe-dependent but LDPE biodegradation was less dependent or independent of gut microbes. Gut microbial community analysis indicated that, as expected, under different dietary conditions, the intestinal flora significantly shifted to communities associated with biodegradation of EPS and LDPE. The results indicated the complexity and limitation of biodegradation of plastics in plastics-eating T. molitor larvae.
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•Biodegradation of PS and two LDPE with decreased Mz by Tenebrio molitor larvae.•Broad depolymerization of PS and one LDPE with decreased both Mw and Mn.•Limited extent depolymerization of LDPE with decreased Mw but increased Mn.•The antibiotic gentamicin inhibited depolymerization of PS but not LDPE.•Distinct microbiomes observed with three different diets bran, PS, and LDPE.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
This research has investigated the properties of thermally insulating geopolymer composites that were prepared using waste expanded polystyrene as lightweight aggregate. The geopolymer matrix was ...synthetized using metakaolin and an alkaline activating solution. To improve its mechanical properties, this matrix was modified by the addition of an epoxy resin to form an organic-inorganic composite. Moreover, in order to reduce drying shrinkage marble powder was used as an inert filler. The materials obtained were characterized in terms of physico-mechanical properties, thermal performance and microstructure. The geopolymer expanded polystyrene composite have improved properties compared to Portland cement-based materials, with higher strengths and lower thermal conductivity. The research demonstrates the manufacture of sustainable lightweight thermally insulating geopolymer composites using waste expanded polystyrene.
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GEOZS, IMTLJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
Plastics pollution poses a new threat to marine ecosystems. Mangrove locating at estuary worldwide is probably the most heavily polluted area trapping various plastics transported from terrestrial ...and nearby marine aquaculture. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is one of most common plastic debris therein and even in the plastic garbage. Here we showed the bacterial diversity of the polystyrene-degrading microbial community from EPS waste sites from a subtropical mangrove area. After enrichment with EPS, the degradation consortia were obtained. They shared a similar community structure dominated by bacteria of Sphingomonadaceae, Rhodanobacteraceae, Rhizobiaceae, Dermacoccaceae, Rhodocyclaceae, Hyphomicrobiaceae, and Methyloligellaceae. Diverse bacteria standing for the first member of the genera of Novosphingobium, Gordonia, Stappia, Mesobacillus, Alcanivorax, Flexivirga, Cytobacillus, Thioclava, and Thalassospira showed PS degradation capability as a pure culture. Further, PS biodegradation of Gordonia sp. and Novosphingobium sp. was quantified by weight loss, in addition to obvious morphological and structural changes of the PS films observed by SEM, ATR-FTIR, and contact angle analysis. The formation of new oxygen-containing functional groups implied the degradation pathway of oxidation. Although the degradation rates ranged from 2.7% to 7.7% after one month in lab and possibly lower in situ, their role in EPS removal is unneglectable.
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•Diverse bacteria in mangrove environment showed PS- degrading potential.•They belong to 9 genera of α, β- proteobacteriu, Actinomycetia, and Bacilli.•7.73% and 2.66% PS was degraded by Gordonia and Novosphingobium in one month, respectively.•Metabolites implied PS degradation was conducted via oxidation pathway.•This is the first report of marine PS-degrading bacteria.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Location and cross-section view of the study site within the Hallyu stream flowing from an artificial lake to the Han River. (a) pictorial view of Hallyu stream and study site, (b) detailed ...cross-section view of study site, and (c) plausible growth inhibition of harmful algae using TiO2EPS balls under the natural sunlight.
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•TiO2-coated expanded polystyrene (TiO2EPS) balls were developed and applied.•Spatial and temporal variation in algal growth inhibition were observed.•Photocatalytic degradation and irradiation shading by TiO2EPS balls were significant.•Both algal growth and bloom were disturbed by TiO2EPS balls in eutrophic stream.•TiO2EPS balls can prevent both growth and reproduction of harmful algae.
TiO2-embedded expanded polystyrene (TiO2EPS) balls were produced in large quantities using continuous manufacturing plants and four processes (i.e., fixing-coating-freeze drying-air drying). Two mesocosms i.e., a photocatalytic zone (PZ) vs. a control zone (CZ) and in-situ real-time monitoring device were installed to monitor the water quality within the hypereutrophic stream and to elucidate the long-term effect of TiO2EPS balls on the growth inhibition of harmful algae for two years (i.e., 2016–2017). The difference in the concentrations of both Chl-a and phycocyanin between CZ and PZ was temporally variable and was significant from August to October with higher solar irradiation levels. Although the effective depth of TiO2EPS balls varied as a complex function of the photocatalytic reactions of TiO2EPS balls and various environmental factors, the photooxidation effect of TiO2EPS balls decreased with the increase in water depth and the effective water depth for growth inhibition was less than 0.5 m. Compare to bimodal distributions in concentrations of both Chl-a and phycocyanin in CZ, both shifted and lowered peaks were mainly due to the photocatalytic degradation and irradiation shading under natural solar irradiation by applying TiO2EPS balls in hypereutrophic water body. Consequently, the TiO2EPS balls developed in this study can prevent both growth and reproduction of harmful algae in hypereutrophic water body, regardless of the environmental factors.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
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•Production of aerated lightweight foamed geopolymer concretes using H2O2 was investigated.•The effects of different components on the properties and microstructure of LFGC were ...investigated.•The expansion properties of foamed geopolymer concretes were tested.•The EPS particles have good compatibility with the foamed geopolymer pastes.
In this study, novel green lightweight foamed geopolymer concretes (LFGC) aerated using hydrogen peroxide based on fly ash, metakaolin and expanded polystyrene (EPS) particles was developed for thermal insulation materials. Physical properties, mechanical strength, thermal characteristics and permeability of LFGC were evaluated by designing and optimizing the components of EPS particles, hydrogen peroxide, metakaolin and fly ash. Meanwhile, the internal microstructure was also investigated by pore structure and scanning electron microscope. The results show that as the content of EPS particles and hydrogen peroxide increased, the compressive strength of LFGC decreased by 57.6% and 9.7%, respectively. The lightweight and thermal insulation properties are enhanced as the EPS particles and hydrogen peroxide content increase due to the contribution of low-density EPS particles and closed foamed air voids. The LFGC presented its dry density range of 300–650 kg/m3, the compressive strength between 2.0 and 5.5 MPa and the thermal conductivity between 0.122 and 0.195 W/m∙K, showing better mechanical strength than the traditional ordinary cement foamed concrete with the same density. Meanwhile, the microstructure also shows that the EPS particles have good compatibility with the foamed geopolymer pastes.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZRSKP
Annually, 8.3 million tonnes of mismanaged plastic waste enter oceans, prompting the food packaging industry, a major contributor, to minimize its environmental footprint. Within the seafood sector, ...a nascent number of studies are exploring the impacts of various packaging solutions for distribution, yet clear insights remain elusive. This study tries to fill the gap by comparing the impacts of two seafood packaging options: disposable expandable polystyrene (EPS) boxes and, for the first time, reusable plastic crates (RPC) crafted from high-density polyethylene. Using the life cycle assessment methodology with a ‘cradle to grave’ approach, the research evaluates the distribution of 1260,000 t of fish from port of Vigo (Spain) to various markets. Similar climate change values emerge in local (5.00·107 kg CO2 eq.) and regional trade (1.20·108 kg CO2 eq.) for both options, but RPCs exhibit around a 12 % increase (6.15·108 kg CO2 eq.) during national distribution, emphasizing package weight and load significance. The findings across all impact categories exhibited general consistent trends. The sensitivity analysis suggests relocating washing facilities to port could enhance RPCs´ environmental benefits for transport within a 160 km range. These findings underscore reusable packaging's potential as an eco-friendlier alternative in specific contexts, aligning with heightened environmental concerns and regulatory pressures surrounding plastic usage.
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•Packaging comparison: RPCs vs. EPS boxes in seafood distribution impact.•Transportation key: Weight and distance crucial for environmental impacts.•Future focus: Optimize packaging shelf life, enhance reuse cycles, and develop effective collection/washing.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) plastic is widely used because of its low density and lightweight properties, enabling it to float on water and increase its exposure to sunlight. In this study, we ...simulated the photoaging process of flame retardant-added EPS (FR-EPS) and common original EPS (OR-EPS) microplastic (MP) particles with and without methyl octabromoether flame retardant (MOBE) in the laboratory to explore the effect of MOBE on the photodegradation of EPS. Results showed that MOBE accelerated size reduction and surface hole formation on the particles, hastening the shedding and replacement of particle surfaces. FR-EPS particles exhibited a weight loss exceeding that of OR-EPS, reaching 40.85 ± 3.72% after 36 days of irradiation. Moreover, rapid physical peeling of the FR-EPS surface was accompanied by continuous chemical oxidation and fluctuations of the carbonyl index and O/C ratio. A diffusion model based on Fick's second law fitted well for the concentration of MOBE remaining in FR-EPS particles. MOBE's sensitivity to direct photochemical reactions inhibited the early-stage photoaging of EPS MP particles by competing for photons. However, MOBE as chromophores could absorb photons and produce •OH to promote the aging of EPS. Moreover, the capacity of EPS to absorb light energy also accelerated MOBE degradation. These findings suggested that the photoaging behavior of commercial EPS products containing flame retardants in the environment is quite different from that of pure EPS, indicating that additive-plastic interactions significantly alter MP fate and environmental risks.
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•Surface spalling was the main pathway of particle fragmentation.•FR-EPS exhibited a greater weight loss than OR-EPS after long-term UV irradiation.•The fluctuation of the oxidation degree of EPS resulted from the surface spalling.•Photoaged EPS MPs had a positive interaction on the photolysis of MOBE.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
•Phosphorylated histidine-amino triazine-diaminopropane (PHTD) copolymer was synthesized and used as bifunctional additives of flame retardant and binder.•PHTD can improve the flame retardancy and ...smoke suppression of EPS foams significantly.•The hard shell formed by PHTD can improve the compressive strengths of EPS foams.
A novel intumescent flame retardant, phosphorylated histidine-amino triazine-diaminopropane (PHTD) was synthesized and utilized as both a flame retardant and a binder addition. Flame retardant expanded polystyrene (EPS) foams containing PHTD was successfully prepared by coating method. The limited oxygen index (LOI) and vertical burning (UL-94) tests were used to determine the flammability of EPS/PHTD composite foams, and an apparent flame retardant effect could be obtained with up to 28.8% LOI value and UL-94 V-0 rating when 41.9 wt.% PHTD was added. The cone calorimetric test results showed that the treat EPS sample showed significantly depressed peak heat release rate (pHRR) by 74.9% and peak smoke production rate (pSPR) by 77.3%. Additionally, the flame retardant could be evenly coated on the surface of EPS beads. Even though part of the foam was damaged, it could still keep good flame retardant performance. Furthermore, the thermal conductivity of coated foam was not affected and remained at a comparatively low level, and the compressive strength was increased by 20.0%.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
