Training interventions like Resisted Sled Training, Complex Training, Plyometric training, and recently, Postactivation Potentiation Enhancement (PAPE) protocols are being employed by sportsmen for ...performance enhancement. Currently, there is no conclusive evidence on the effectiveness of the PAPE protocols and methods to integrate them into the training. The current systematic review aims to critically summarize the current evidence on PAPE protocols’ effect on Sprint and Change of Direction (COD) performance in Athletes and study the influence of the Type of PAPE protocols, Recovery duration, Volumes, and loads of PAPE protocols.
A systematic computerized literature search was performed from December 2020 to June 2022 on the databases: MEDLINE (assessed by PubMed), CENTRAL (Cochrane Library Central Register of Controlled Trials), PeDro, and Science direct. The major criteria for inclusion were Athletes (Population) who performed PAPE protocol as Intervention before Sprint and/or COD assessment tests. The studies were individually assessed for Risk of Bias using EPHPP (Effective Public Health Practice Project) Tool.
A total of sixteen studies were included. For Linear sprint, nine studies reported a significant PAPE effect whereas, six studies reported insignificant effects. Whereas, for COD performance, two studies reported insignificant results and one study reported significant CODS enhancements The recovery duration ranged from 15 s up to 16 min.
PAPE protocols can be incorporated provided the recovery duration is of Moderate duration (3–8mins) or Individualized durations, using multiple sets (2–6), moderate-high loads (>85% 1-RM), type of protocol is Barbell Hip Thrust, Plyometrics or Unilateral biomechanically similar exercises to Running.
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GEOZS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, UILJ, UL, UM, UPCLJ, UPUK, ZAGLJ, ZRSKP
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of inducing post‐activation potentiation (PAP) during prolonged low‐frequency force depression (PLFFD) on motor unit (MU) firing rates. In 10 ...participants, grouped firing rates of 3027 MUs from the tibialis anterior were recorded with tungsten microelectrodes. Baseline MU firing rates at 25% isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) were ∼14 Hz. A 1 min dorsiflexion MVC reduced torque and maximal MU firing rates (36 Hz) by 49% and 52%, respectively. Following task completion, firing rates at 25% of baseline MVC torque and torque in response to electrically evoked (single twitch, 10 Hz and 50 Hz) stimulation were assessed before and after a 5 s MVC (to induce PAP) every 10 min for 60 min. From 10 to 60 min after task completion, the torque ratios (twitch:50 Hz and 10:50 Hz) were depressed (∼30%) relative to baseline (P < 0.001), indicating PLFFD; and firing rates were higher by ∼15% relative to baseline (P < 0.001). This occurred despite recovery of MVC rates (∼99%) and torque (∼95%) by 10 min (P > 0.3). Inducing PAP during PLFFD increased both low to high torque ratios (twitch and 10:50 Hz) by ∼200% and ∼135%, respectively (P < 0.001) and firing rates were ∼18% lower relative to PLFFD rates (P < 0.001), despite a speeding of evoked contractile properties (P = 0.001). Thus, firing rates appear strongly matched to alterations in torque, rather than contractile speed when modified by contractile history, and lower rates during PAP may be a mechanism to mitigate effects of PLFFD. The effect of activation history on contractile function demonstrates acute compensatory responses of motoneuron output.
Key points
Prolonged low frequency force depression (PLFFD) following a sustained 1 min isometric maximal voluntary contraction causes an increase in submaximal mean motor unit (MU) firing rates.
Inducing post‐activation potentiation (PAP) during PLFFD, however, causes a reduction in mean submaximal MU firing rates to a level below those at baseline.
The mean firing rate reduction during PAP occurs despite a speeding of evoked contractile properties and thus firing rates are more strongly matched to alterations in torque, rather than contractile speed when modified by various contractile histories.
The reductions in firing rates during PAP may mitigate the effects of PLFFD during voluntary contractions.
These results demonstrate that firing rates are highly responsive to opposing influences on the contractile state and can make rapid compensatory rate adjustments dependent on the active state of the muscle.
figure legend Voluntary and electrically stimulated (fibular nerve) dorsiflexion torque was assessed before (baseline) and after a 5 s (post‐activation potentiation; PAP) and a 1 min sustained maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) to induce prolonged low‐frequency force depression (PLFFD). On a separate day, motor unit (MU) firing rates were recorded during a 25% MVC during baseline, PAP and PLFFD; and PAP during PLFFD conditions. Firing rates were lower during PAP relative to baseline, but conversely, firing rates recorded during PLFFD were greater than baseline rates. When PAP was induced in a state of PLFFD, firing rates were lower relative to both the PLFFD and baseline conditions. The effect of activation history on contractile function demonstrates acute compensatory responses of motoneuron output.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
The effects of low‐load resistance exercise combined with external limb compression (ELC) to augment post‐activation performance enhancement during countermovement jumps have yet to be examined. We ...assessed the separate and combined effects of ELC and sets of low‐load (back squats) resistance exercise (both compared with controls) during conditioning routines, and determine their subsequent neuromechanical consequences during countermovement jumps. On separate days, twenty strength‐trained men completed a familiarization session followed by four experimental trials in a randomized design that included one of the following conditioning routines: passive rest (Control CON, no occlusion/standing), exercise (sets of low‐intensity resistance exercise RE with 30% 1RM, no occlusion/exercise), ELC (ELC at 80% of the individual arterial occlusion pressure, occlusion/standing), and combined ELC and exercise (ELC + RE, occlusion/exercise). Countermovement jump performance (jump height, relative peak power output, vertical impulse, and rate of force development) was assessed at baseline, immediately after, and at the third, sixth, ninth and twelfth minute following each conditioning routine. Compared to baseline, jump height, relative peak power output and vertical impulse values were lower at 0 min for RE (−3.5%–8.2%; p ≤ 0.014) and higher at +3 min for ELC (+2.0%–3.8%; p ≤ 0.013). Regarding ELC + RE, values for these three variables were lower at 0 min (−4.8%–8.0%; p < 0.001) but higher at +12 min (+2.9%–5.5%; p < 0.001) versus baseline. In strength‐trained men, using ELC either alone (while standing) or combined with low‐load resistance exercise sets (during back squats) can be a useful way to improve CMJ mechanics. However, the duration and magnitude of post‐activation potentiation performance benefits varied depending on the type of ELC protocol used.
Highlights
Athletes can incorporate external limb compression while standing into their conditioning routine, yet they should be aware that the enhancement may take up to 3 min to manifest.
Another effective solution is to combine external limb compression and low‐load resistance exercise sets but enhancement would not appear until after 12 minutes.
Low‐load resistance exercise alone does not yield any positive effects and led to an immediate decrease in countermovement jump performance, thus it is not recommended.
Athletes should monitor their own countermovement jump performance data to assess the individual nature of post‐activation performance enhancement responses.
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FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
Purpose Many studies have investigated the effect of whole body vibration (WBV) exercise on post-activation potentiation. It was reported that an intervention protocol of WBV combined with 5 drop ...jumps (DJs) led to an increase in twitch force, suggesting the occurrence of post-activation potentiation. The purpose of this study was to examine the acute effect of different warm-up interventions on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance by recording jump height, power, and take-off velocity in gymnasts. Methods Overall, 10 adult gymnasts (mean age: 22.80 ± 1.75 years; body mass: 61.92 ± 8.65 kg; body height: 170.10 ± 8.65 cm) with 16.35 ± 5.68 years of training experience volunteered to participate in this study. The interventions were (i) WBV, (ii) no vibration, (iii) DJs, and (iv) WBV combined with DJs (WBVDJ). Over 4 distinct randomized testing sessions, the gymnasts performed pre-intervention tests comprising 3 CMJs, followed by one of the 4 interventions; after 8 min, they performed another set of 3 CMJs. Results A significant interaction was observed between interventions for jump height and take-off velocity, leading to improvements (+4.82%, p < 0.05; +2.50%, p < 0.05, respectively) after WBVDJ only. No significant improvements were noted for WBV, DJs, or no vibration interventions. The implementation of WBVDJ was an effective stimulus leading to post-activation performance enhancement of CMJ in gymnasts. Conclusions The WBVDJ intervention increased jump height of CMJ performance and take-off velocity of lower limbs. In addition, WBVDJ led to greater performance improvement compared with DJ intervention.
This study compared neuromechanical characteristics of voluntary (maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) peak torque, rate of torque development (RTD), voluntary activation (VA)) and electrically ...stimulated contractions (peak torque, RTD) when performed under the same temperature conditions. Twelve physically active males performed two isometric MVCs of the quadriceps muscle group in an isokinetic dynamometer. The MVCs were performed after lower limb submersion for 20 min in hot (40°C) or cold (10°C) water. A control MVC was performed in ambient room temperature (17 ± 0.7°C). Electrical twitches were delivered at rest pre-MVC (Unpotentiated), during the plateau phase of the MVC (Superimposed) and post-MVC (Potentiated). Peak torque for MVC, Unpotentiated and Potentiated was recorded. RTD was calculated for the MVC (at 50, 100, 150, 200 ms and peak torque time points), Unpotentiated and Potentiated twitches, while VA (using the central activation ratio method) was calculated. There was no significant change between conditions in MVC peak torque, MVC RTD, VA and (averaged) twitch peak torque (p > 0.05). Twitch RTD for the hot condition (1025.0 ± 163.0 N·m·s
−1
) was significantly higher (p = 0.003) than control (872.3 ± 142.9 N·m·s
−1
). In conclusion, environmental temperature changes, in the range examined, do not affect the ability to generate maximum torque or any of the RTD parameters in maximum voluntary isometric contractions. In contrast, increased heat results in higher RTD in electrically stimulated contractions, most likely induced by reduced contraction time. This has practical implications for the use of electromyostimulation for injury prevention.
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FSPLJ, FZAB, GIS, IJS, KILJ, NLZOH, NUK, OILJ, SBCE, SBMB, UL, UM, UPUK
In this review, we will present and critically discuss how different conditioning exercises can be implemented in training, testing, and competition for the enhancement of performances in different ...sports, via post-activation performance enhancement and other delayed potentiation responses. The potentiation approaches described here include warming up, testing and monitoring, re-warm-up and priming strategies, and complex training. The post-activation performance enhancement responses can be best described following the new taxonomy, which allows the identification of the best strategies in every specific sport setting. This requires identifying the post-activation performance enhancement factors, which are the conditioning activity, the verification test, the population of athletes; and potential moderators (i.e. exercise type and loading, timing; recovery interval, target exercise, performance parameter; training background, age, and sex). The inherent limitations to these approaches, including the gaps in literature requiring further studies, may be overcome in practice by using individualized approaches.
Maximal conditioning contractions (CCs) can lead to the enhancement of evoked-twitch characteristics in human skeletal muscle. This phenomenon is termed post-activation potentiation (PAP). In the ...knee extensors, PAP is greater in men compared with boys. In adults, the optimal CC duration for PAP is ~ 10 s. We examined child-adult differences in PAP among females and aimed to determine the optimal CC duration in girls and women.
Eleven girls (9.3 ± 1.4 years) and 13 women (23.4 ± 2.7 years) participated in this study. Maximal isometric evoked twitches were recorded in the knee extensors before and after 4 maximal CCs of different durations (5, 10, 20, and 30 s), in a random order. PAP was calculated as the percent-change in peak torque (Tpeak) and peak rate of torque development (RTDpeak) after each CC.
There was a group-by-duration interaction (p < 0.001), reflecting greater Tpeak PAP in women compared with girls following 5 and 10 s CCs, and lower RTDpeak PAP in women following the 30 s CC. The 5 and 10 s CCs lead to the greatest Tpeak and RTDpeak PAP amongst the women while there were no differences between CC durations in girls.
After both a 5 and 10 s CC, women have greater PAP compared with girls. The optimal CC duration for the knee extensors in women appears to be ~ 5-10 s, while CC durations between 5 and 30 s do not appear to affect levels of PAP in girls.
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EMUNI, FIS, FZAB, GEOZS, GIS, IJS, IMTLJ, KILJ, KISLJ, MFDPS, NLZOH, NUK, OBVAL, OILJ, PNG, SAZU, SBCE, SBJE, SBMB, SBNM, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK, VKSCE, ZAGLJ
Objective This meta-analysis aims to systematically evaluate the impact of blood flow restriction training (BFRT) on muscle activation and post-activation potentiation (PAP) in the upper limbs, to ...provide guidance for upper limb protocols aiming to enhance explosive strength and activation. Methods PubMed, CNKI, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases were queried to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of upper limb BFRT on muscle activation and PAP. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied using the Cochrane bias risk tool. Literature quality assessment and statistical analysis were conducted using Revman 5.4 and Stata 17.0 software. Sensitivity analysis and funnel plots were utilized to assess result stability and publication bias. Results A total of 31 articles involving 484 participants were included in the analysis. Meta-analysis results showed that upper limb BFRT significantly increased muscle iEMG values SMD = 0.89, 95% CI (0.21, 1.58), p = 0.01. BFRT had a significant effect on upper limb explosive force SMD = 0.73, 95% CI (0.41, 1.04), p < 0.00001. Subgroup analysis based on literature heterogeneity ( I 2 = 92%, 80%) showed that exhaustive BFRT significantly decreased upper limb iEMG SMD = −0.67, 95% CI (−1.25, −0.09), p = 0.01, with exercise modes including maximum output power of bench press SMD = 1.87, 95% CI (0.22, 3.53), p < 0.0001, exercise intensity of 40%–70% 1RM SMD = 1.31, 95% CI (0.61, 2.01), p < 0.0001, and pressure intensity of ≥60% AOP SMD = 0.83, 95% CI (0.43, 1.23), p < 0.0001 reaching maximum effects and statistical significance. Conclusion Upper limb BFRT can induce muscle activation and PAP. BFRT with 40%–70% 1RM and ≥60% AOP in the upper limbs is more likely to promote PAP. Systematic Review Registration http://inplasy.com , identifier INPLASY202430008.
To date, there is a lack of information about the optimal conditions of the warm-up to lead to a better performance in elite tennis players. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of two ...different warm-up protocols (dynamic vs. self-myofascial release with foam rolling) on neuromuscular variables associated with physical determinants of tennis performance. Using a crossover randomised experimental design, eleven professional men tennis players (20.6 ± 3.5 years) performed either a dynamic warm-up (DWU) or a self-myofascial release with foam rolling (SMFR) protocol. DWU consisted of 8 min of dynamic exercises at increasing intensity and SMFR consisted of 8 min of rolling on each lower extremity unilaterally. Just before (baseline) and after completing warm-up protocols, players performed a countermovement jump (CMJ), the 5-0-5 agility test, a 10-m sprint test and the Straight Leg Raise and Thomas tests to assess range of motion. Compared to baseline, the DWU was more effective to reduce the time in the 5-0-5 test than SMFR (-2.23 vs. 0.44%, respectively, p = 0.042,
p
= 0.19). However, both warm-up protocols similarly affected CMJ (2.32 vs. 0.61%, p = 0.373,
p
= 0.04) and 10-m sprint time changes (-1.26 vs. 1.03%, p = 0.124,
p
= 0.11). Changes in range of motion tests were also similar with both protocols (p = 0.448-1.000,
p
= 0.00-0.02). Overall, both DWU and SMFR were effective to prepare well-trained tennis players for highly demanding neuromuscular actions. However, DWU offered a better preparation for performing change of direction and sprint actions, and hence, in high-performance tennis players, the warm-up should include dynamic exercises.
Background: Studies assessing post-activation potentiation (PAP) responses comparing male and female athletes are conflicting. Objectives: This study investigated whether differences exist in the ...duration for optimal post-preload stimulus measures on performance in male and female team sport athletes. Methods: Twenty-four participants (12 males and 12 females) participated in the study. Two familiarization sessions were conducted with each participant. Then, three experimental conditions were implemented, incorporating a standardized warm-up, followed by back squats (conditioning exercises) and varying passive recovery times of 4 min (PAP4), 8 min (PAP8), or 12 min (PAP12). Following the recovery, players performed three physical performance measures related to team sports: A countermovement jump, a modified agility t-test, and a 20-m linear sprint. The significance level was set at P < 0.05. Results: All performance measures were significantly greater in PAP12 than in PAP4 and PAP8 conditions in both males (1.50 to 2.95%) and females (1.09 to 5.79%) (P < 0.05). The PAP12 condition also had significantly lower values for HR (3.18 to 5.15 beats.min-1; P < 0.0005) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) (0.63 to 1.02; P < 0.05) than PAP8 and PAP4. Males performed better on all the performance tests (19.33 to 26.34%) compared to their female counterparts (P < 0.0005). Conclusions: A pre-load stimulus consisting of one set of 5 repetitions of back squat at 85% one-repetition maximum can elicit a PAP response. A 12-min passive rest after the pre-load stimulus was most beneficial in improving physical performance measures in both male and female team-sport athletes.
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