Examined the influence of potential ingroup censure and race of target on aggressive and rewarding responses in 2 experiments with white male undergraduates (N = 72). In Exp. I, Ss were allowed to ...aggress against a black or white target under conditions varying the availability of their responses to an ingroup member. Prior to statistical analysis, 2 orthogonal variates were identified: direct aggression and indirect aggression. It was found that lower levels of direct aggression were delivered to black targets under potential censure conditions (responses available) than under noncensure conditions (responses not available). No differential responding was exhibited toward white targets as a function of the same situational conditions. In Exp. II, potential censure was found to facilitate both a direct form of reward and an indirect form of aggression toward black targets. Results are discussed in terms of problems associated with heightening aggressive inhibitions. An expanded conceptualization of the notion of indirect aggression is offered.
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An organization is a collection of members in which each member performs a task with a given cost & receives a reward. The net benefit to the organizer is given by the gross revenue, less the sum of ...all compensations paid. The organizer will try to select that schema of rewards that maximizes his expected benefit. A criterion for optimal rewards selection in a Markovian decision process framework is defined through an expected cost of rewards minimization problem approach. Modified HA.
That amateurs are lovers of their leisure pursuits should never obscure the facts that amateurism also contains some distasteful elements, & that professionals also love those same pursuits. That ...there are rewards & costs in amateurism suggests that the profit hypothesis from exchange framework is a more effective model of the leisure motives of amateurs than the commonsense explanation. Data on the costs & rewards of amateur archaeology & astronomy were collected by means of observation of the meetings & other activities of 2 local societies & lengthy unstructured interviews with 58 of their members. Five categories of rewards & costs are considered under the headings of "rewards," "thrills," "disappointments," "dislikes," & "tensions." The reward-cost patterns in astronomy & archaeology are compared & taken as suggestive of the patterns existing in avocational science in general. By establishing that these amateurs crave or desire to get to work at their avocation, profit is measured independently of its definition (excess of reward over cost). AA.
Homan's theory of distributive justice especially when unjustifiable inequity exists was applied to study experimentally the productivity of men in groups. The results are interpreted as supporting ...Homan's proposition in that productivity decreased when members suffer from
inequity but productivity increased when inquiry puts them at an advantage.
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The effects of resources imbalance on reward allocation strategies are studied in 136 mixed-sex dyads to determine the extent to which the allocator rewards his or her partner on an equal basis with ...self. Three predictions are tested: (1) Subjects with a resource advantage will reward themselves more so than they will reward their partners; (2) Subjects with a resource advantage in a certain (versus uncertain) structural situation will reward self and other more equally than subjects with a resource advantage in an uncertain situation will; and (3) females with a resource advantage will reward self and other more equally than males with a resource advantage will Clear-cut support is observed for the first prediction only. Other results reveal significant interaction effects between structural condition and gender of allocator. Prediction 2 is supported for males only while Prediction 3 holds only for the uncertain structural condition. The discussion focuses on the importance of social structural conditions for explaining similarities and differences in the allocational behavior of men and women toward each other in social exchange relations.
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INVESTIGATED THE EFFECTS OF NO PRIOR DYADIC EXPERIENCE, HOSTILE, AND FRIENDLY EXPERIENCE, COMBINED FACTORIALLY WITH HIGH AND LOW MONETARY REWARD ON COMPETITIVE-COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR IN A 2-CHOICE ...NON-ZERO-SUM GAME. THE GAME MATRIX WAS CONSTRUCTED SO THAT A COMPETITIVE CHOICE UNAMBIGUOUSLY REFLECTED THE OPERATION OF A MOTIVE TO MAXIMIZE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OWN AND OTHER'S SCORE, AS OPPOSED TO MOTIVES TO MAXIMIZE OWN OR JOINT GAIN. 15 DYADS OF FLEMISH MALES WERE ASSIGNED RANDOMLY TO EACH OF THE 6 EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS WITHIN A 3 * 2 REPEATED-MEASURES DESIGN (100 TRIALS). THE RESULTS INDICATE THAT BOTH PRIOR DYADIC EXPERIENCE AND REWARD FACTORS, AS WELL AS THE NUMBER OF TIMES THE GAME IS ACTUALLY PLAYED, ARE IMPORTANT DETERMINANTS OF COMPETITIVE-COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR.
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1,255 US Coll S's, 96 Amer Peace Corps volunteers, 94 Canadian S's, 56 Pakistani S's, 50 Asiatic Indian S's, & 78 Ethiopian S's, M & F, were asked to complete a questionaire in which they reported 2 ...instances of behaviors for which they recalled being praised by their parents before the age of 13. It was assumed that responses would reflect the salience of values among the R's. Responses were categorized into 12 main subdivisions, including praise for: (1) academic performance, (2) competitive success, (3) athletic skill or participation, (4) domestic responsibility, (5) taking care of one's siblings, (6) complying with parental religious expectations, (7) participation or skill in the fine arts, (8) public recognition or status, (9) manifesting soc control, (10) effective behavior in an emergency, (11) maturity of judgment or conduct, & (12) a variety of traditional `virtues' such as kindliness, thrift, hard work, etc. Comparisons among the Amer's showed that the Peace Corps volunteers were relatively higher in reporting praise for (11) & (12). Canadians cited praise in (7) more than Amer's, & showed fewer sex diff's in several categories. They more frequently cited praise for (11), (10), & (4). As with all other foreign groups, they reported praise for (8) less often than Amer's. West Germans put less emphasis on (1), (9), (3), (8), & (7). Marked diff's characterized the German sample. Indians gave greater reference to (10), & (12). The Pakistanis stressed (10), (12), & (6). Ethiopians put major emphasis on (9) & (4). In general, the Amer's stressed (1), (2), (3), & (7). Modified AA.
An examination of the nature of employment in closed prisons from the point of view of industrial sociology. Four elements of regular employment--focal task, status, effort, & reward--are shown to be ..."inverted" in the prison setting. In most work environments, the focal task forms the occupation of the majority of the workers, but in the prison, the focal tasks, ie, custody & rehabilitation, are engaged in by prison officials alone. Elements that constitute status in normal working situations, eg, the right to organize & the right to negotiate terms & working conditions, are nonexistent in the prison setting. Normal consequences of effort are inverted, since a prisoner may not necessarily expect selection to a job or promotion on the basis of high performance. Similarly, reward systems are reversed, since the prison setting itself constitutes a deprivation rather than a reward. Thus, efforts in the British penal system to make prison work as nearly comparable as possible with that of the outside world face many problems inherent in the nature of prison itself. M. Cain.
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Duncan's interpretation of his research on the nature and process of the distribution of rewards in the U.S. stratification system is questioned. Statistical and conceptual flaws are noted in ...Duncan's work and their implications explored. A re-analysis of primary survey data is presented and, based upon this, a reconceptualization of the reward distribution process is offered. The implications of this reconceptualization for stratification research are noted. It is further suggested that a plausible source of Duncan's research error is that of presuppositional bias, particularly American egalitarian achievement ideology. It is also suggested that this bias did not emerge as an isolated case of analytical error in Duncan's research, but is present in every functionalist theoretical statement about the stratification system.
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A logical derivation of pressures for conformity from the logical relationship of conformity to certain interaction states known to be rewarding is presented. Beginning with the fact that for most ...people, perceived consensus correct behavioral predictions, & influence are rewarding, the relationship between conformity & these interactions states was deduced demonstrating that the rewards of interaction vary with the conformity of the interactors. Pressures for conformity as defined here are therefore seen to be inherent in the interaction situation if it is to be rewarding. The theoretical analysis presented here offers a convenient framework for a partial integration of the theories of L. Festinger & T. M. Newcomb, by changing the emphasis of Festinger's theory away from soc comparison, & by providing definitions coordinating concepts in these 2 theories with those of our analysis. 10 hyp's from the theory were tested on a random sample of 51 adolescent friendship groups by means ofd's & records of discussion results. 9 hyp's were confirmed at the .01 level of confidence. Verification of these hyp's lends confidence to the theoretical development. AA.
