Study objective Recognition of pediatric sepsis is a key clinical challenge. We evaluate the performance of a sepsis recognition process including an electronic sepsis alert and bedside assessment in ...a pediatric emergency department (ED). Methods This was a cohort study with quality improvement intervention in a pediatric ED. Exposure was a positive electronic sepsis alert, defined as elevated pulse rate or hypotension, concern for infection, and at least one of the following: abnormal capillary refill, abnormal mental status, or high-risk condition. A positive electronic sepsis alert prompted team assessment or huddle to determine need for sepsis protocol. Clinicians could initiate team assessment or huddle according to clinical concern without positive electronic sepsis alert. Severe sepsis outcome defined as activation of the sepsis protocol in the ED or development of severe sepsis requiring ICU admission within 24 hours. Results There were 182,509 ED visits during the study period, with 86,037 before electronic sepsis alert implementation and 96,472 afterward, and 1,112 (1.2%) positive electronic sepsis alerts. Overall, 326 patients (0.3%) were treated for severe sepsis within 24 hours. Test characteristics of the electronic sepsis alert alone to detect severe sepsis were sensitivity 86.2% (95% confidence interval CI 82.0% to 89.5%), specificity 99.1% (95% CI 99.0% to 99.2%), positive predictive value 25.4% (95% CI 22.8% to 28.0%), and negative predictive value 100% (95% CI 99.9% to 100%). Inclusion of the clinician screen identified 43 additional electronic sepsis alert–negative children, with severe sepsis sensitivity 99.4% (95% CI 97.8% to 99.8%) and specificity 99.1% (95% CI 99.1% to 99.2%). Electronic sepsis alert implementation increased ED sepsis detection from 83% to 96%. Conclusion Electronic sepsis alert for severe sepsis demonstrated good sensitivity and high specificity. Addition of clinician identification of electronic sepsis alert–negative patients further improved sensitivity. Implementation of the electronic sepsis alert was associated with improved recognition of severe sepsis.
Objectives To evaluate accuracy of 2 established administrative methods of identifying children with sepsis using a medical record review reference standard. Study design Multicenter retrospective ...study at 6 US children's hospitals. Subjects were children >60 days to <19 years of age and identified in 4 groups based on International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes: (1) severe sepsis/septic shock (sepsis codes); (2) infection plus organ dysfunction (combination codes); (3) subjects without codes for infection, organ dysfunction, or severe sepsis; and (4) infection but not severe sepsis or organ dysfunction. Combination codes were allowed, but not required within the sepsis codes group. We determined the presence of reference standard severe sepsis according to consensus criteria. Logistic regression was performed to determine whether addition of codes for sepsis therapies improved case identification. Results A total of 130 out of 432 subjects met reference SD of severe sepsis. Sepsis codes had sensitivity 73% (95% CI 70-86), specificity 92% (95% CI 87-95), and positive predictive value 79% (95% CI 70-86). Combination codes had sensitivity 15% (95% CI 9-22), specificity 71% (95% CI 65-76), and positive predictive value 18% (95% CI 11-27). Slight improvements in model characteristics were observed when codes for vasoactive medications and endotracheal intubation were added to sepsis codes (c-statistic 0.83 vs 0.87, P = .008). Conclusions Sepsis specific International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes identify pediatric patients with severe sepsis in administrative data more accurately than a combination of codes for infection plus organ dysfunction.
Objective To determine if household income is associated with hospitalization costs for severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and spinal cord injury (SCI). Study design Retrospective cohort study of ...inpatient, nonrehabilitation hospitalizations at 43 freestanding children's hospitals for patients <19 years old with unintentional severe TBI and SCI from 2009-2012. Standardized cost of care for hospitalizations was modeled using mixed-effects methods, adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, primary payer, presence of chronic medical condition, mechanism of injury, injury severity, distance from residence to hospital, and trauma center level. Main exposure was zip code level median annual household income. Results There were 1061 patients that met inclusion criteria, 833 with TBI only, 227 with SCI only, and 1 with TBI and SCI. Compared with those with the lowest-income zip codes, patients from the highest-income zip codes were more likely to be older, white (76.7% vs 50.4%), have private insurance (68.9% vs 27.9%), and live closer to the hospital (median distance 26.7 miles vs 81.2 miles). In adjusted models, there was no significant association between zip code level household income and hospitalization costs. Conclusions Children hospitalized with unintentional, severe TBI and SCI showed no difference in standardized hospital costs relative to a patient's home zip code level median annual household income. The association between household income and hospitalization costs may vary by primary diagnosis.
Objectives To quantify rates and variation in emergency department (ED) cranial computed tomography (CT) utilization in children with ventricular shunts, estimate radiation exposure, and evaluate the ...association between CT utilization and shunt revision. Study design Retrospective longitudinal cohort study of ED visits from 2003-2013 in children 0-18 years old with initial shunt placement in 2003. Data were examined from 31 hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information System. Main outcomes were cranial CT performed during an ED visit, estimated cumulative effective radiation dose, and shunt revision within 7 days. Multivariable regression modeled the relationship between patient- and hospital-level covariates and CT utilization. Results The 1319 children with initial shunt placed in 2003 experienced 6636 ED visits during the subsequent decade. A cranial CT was obtained in 49.4% of all ED visits; 19.9% of ED visits with CT were associated with a shunt revision. Approximately 6% of patients received ≥10 CTs, accounting for 37.2% of all ED visits with a CT. The mean number of CTs per patient varied nearly 20-fold across hospitals; the individual hospital accounted for the most variation in CT utilization. The median (IQR) cumulative effective radiation dose was 7.2 millisieverts (3.6-14.0) overall, and 33.4 millisieverts (27.2-43.8) among patients receiving ≥10 CTs. Conclusions A CT scan was obtained in half of ED visits for children with a ventricular shunt, with wide variability in utilization by hospitals. Strategies are needed to identify children at risk of shunt malfunction to reduce variability in CT utilization and radiation exposure in the ED.
Abstract Background Childhood sports-related head trauma is common, frequently leading to emergency department (ED) visits. We describe the spectrum of these injuries and trends in computed ...tomography (CT) use in the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network. Methods This was a secondary analysis of a large prospective cohort of children with head trauma in 25 Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network EDs between 2004 and 2006. We described and compared children 5 to 18 years old by CT rate, traumatic brain injury (TBI) on CT, and clinically important TBI (ciTBI). We used multi-variable logistic regression to compare CT rates, adjusting for clinical severity. Outcomes included frequency of CT, TBIs on CT, and ciTBIs (defined by a death, b neurosurgery, c intubation > 24 hours, or d hospitalization for ≥ 2 nights). Findings A total of 3289 (14%) of 23 082 children had sports-related head trauma. Two percent had Glasgow Coma Scale scores less than 14. 53% received ED CTs, 4% had TBIs on CT, and 1% had ciTBIs. Equestrians had increased adjusted odds (1.8; 95% confidence interval CI, 1.0-3.0) of CTs; the rate of TBI on CT was 4% (95% CI, 3%-5%). Compared with team sports, snow (adjusted odds ratio, 4.1; 95% CI 1.5-11.4) and nonmotorized wheeled (adjusted odds ratio, 12.8; 95% CI, 5.5-32.4) sports had increased adjusted odds of ciTBIs. Conclusions Children with sports-related head trauma commonly undergo CT. Only 4% of those imaged had TBIs on CT. Clinically important TBIs occurred in 1%, with significant variation by sport. There is an opportunity for injury prevention efforts in high-risk sports and opportunities to reduce CT use in general by use of evidence-based prediction rules. What is known about this subject: Pediatric sports-related head injuries are a common and increasingly frequent ED presentation, as is the use of CT in their evaluation. Little is known about TBIs resulting from different types of sports activities in children. What this study adds to existing knowledge: This study broadens the understanding of the epidemiology of Pediatric TBIs resulting from different sports activities through a prospective assessment of frequency and severity of ciTBIs and ED CT use in a large cohort of head-injured children in a network of pediatric EDs.
Objective To assess the impact of chronic conditions on children's emergency department (ED) use. Study design Retrospective analysis of 1 850 027 ED visits in 2010 by 3 250 383 children ages 1-21 ...years continuously enrolled in Medicaid from 10 states included in the Truven Marketscan Medicaid Database. The main outcome was the annual ED visit rate not resulting in hospitalization per 1000 enrollees. We compared rates by enrollees' characteristics, including type and number of chronic conditions, and medical technology (eg, gastrostomy, tracheostomy), using Poisson regression. To assess chronic conditions, we used the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality's Chronic Condition Indicator system, assigning chronic conditions with ED visit rates ≥75th percentile as having the “highest” visit rates. Results The overall annual ED visit rate was 569 per 1000 enrollees. As the number of the children's chronic conditions increased from 0 to ≥3, visit rates increased by 180% (from 376 to 1053 per 1000 enrollees, P < .001). Rates were 174% higher in children assisted with vs without medical technology (1546 vs 565, P < .001). Sickle cell anemia, epilepsy, and asthma were among the chronic conditions associated with the highest ED visit rates (all ≥1003 per 1000 enrollees). Conclusions The highest ED visit rates resulting in discharge to home occurred in children with multiple chronic conditions, technology assistance, and specific conditions such as sickle cell anemia. Future studies should assess the preventability of ED visits in these populations and identify opportunities for reducing their ED use.
Objective The use of abdominal radiographs contributes to increased healthcare costs, radiation exposure, and potentially to misdiagnoses. We evaluated the association between abdominal radiograph ...performance and emergency department (ED) revisits with important alternate diagnosis among children with constipation. Study design Retrospective cohort study of children aged <18 years diagnosed with constipation at one of 23 EDs from 2004 to 2015. The primary exposure was abdominal radiograph performance. The primary outcome was a 3-day ED revisit with a clinically important alternate diagnosis. RAND/University of California, Los Angeles methodology was used to define whether the revisit was related to the index visit and due to a clinically important condition other than constipation. Regression analysis was performed to identify exposures independently related to the primary outcome. Results A total of 65.7% (185 439/282 225) of children with constipation had an index ED visit abdominal radiograph performed. Three-day revisits occurred in 3.7% (10 566/282 225) of children, and 0.28% (784/282 225) returned with a clinically important alternate related diagnosis. Appendicitis was the most common such revisit, accounting for 34.1% of all 3-day clinically important related revisits. Children who had an abdominal radiograph performed were more likely to have a 3-day revisit with a clinically important alternate related diagnosis (0.33% vs 0.17%; difference 0.17%; 95% CI 0.13-0.20). Following adjustment for covariates, abdominal radiograph performance was associated with a 3-day revisit with a clinically important alternate diagnosis (aOR: 1.39; 95% CI 1.15-1.67). Additional characteristics associated with the primary outcome included narcotic (aOR: 2.63) and antiemetic (aOR: 2.35) administration and underlying comorbidities (aOR: 2.52). Conclusions Among children diagnosed with constipation, abdominal radiograph performance is associated with an increased risk of a revisit with a clinically important alternate related diagnosis.
Objective To examine pediatric emergency department (ED) visits over 5 years, trends in injury severity, and associations between injury-related ED visit outcome and patient and community-level ...sociodemographic characteristics. Study design Retrospective analysis of administrative data provided to the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Core Data Project, 2004-2008. Home addresses were geocoded to determine census block group and associated sociodemographic characteristics. Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale severity and Severity Classification System scores were calculated. Generalized estimating equations were used to test for associations between sociodemographic characteristics and admission or transfer among injury-related ED visits. Results Overall ED visits and injury-related visits increased from 2004 to 2008 at study sites. Of 2 833 676 successfully geocoded visits, 700 821 (24.7%) were injury-related. The proportion of higher severity injury-related visits remained consistent. Nearly 10% of injury-related visits resulted in admission or transfer each year. After adjusting for age, sex, payer, and injury severity, odds of admission or transfer were lower among minority children and children from areas with moderate and high prevalence of poverty. Conclusions Pediatric injury-related ED visits to included sites increased over the study period while injury severity, anticipated resource utilization, and visit outcomes remained stable, with low rates of admission or transfer. Sociodemographic differences in injury-related visits and ED disposition were apparent. ED-based injury surveillance is essential to understand disparities, inform targets for prevention programs, and reduce the overall burden of childhood injuries.
Abstract Objective Observation unit (OU) use has been promoted recently to decrease resource utilization and costs for select patients, but little is known about the operations of pediatric OUs. This ...study aimed to characterize the infrastructure and function of OUs within freestanding children's hospitals and to compare characteristics between hospitals with and without OUs. Methods All 43 freestanding children's hospitals that submit data to the Pediatric Health Information System were contacted in 2013 to identify OUs that admitted unscheduled patients from their emergency department (ED) in 2011. Semistructured interviews were conducted with representatives at hospitals with these OUs. Characteristics of hospitals with and without OUs were compared. Results Fourteen (33%) of 43 hospitals had an OU during 2011. Hospitals with OUs had more beds and more annual ED visits compared to those without OUs. Most OUs (65%) were located in the ED and had <12 beds (65%). Staffing models and patient populations differed between OUs. Nearly 60% were hybrid OUs, providing scheduled services. OUs lacked uniform outcome measures. Themes included: admissions were intuition based, certain patients were not well suited for OUs, OUs had rapid-turnover cultures, and the designation of observation status was arbitrary. Challenges included patient discontent with copayments and payer-driven utilization reviews. Conclusions OUs were located in higher volume hospitals and varied by location, size, and staffing. Most functioned as hybrid OUs. OUs based admissions on intuition, had staffing cultures centered on rapid turnover of patient care, lacked consistent outcome measures, and faced challenges regarding utilization review and patient copayments.
Abstract Objective The incidence of skin and soft tissue infections requiring incision and drainage has increased. Little evidence exists about the use of procedural sedation (PS) for these ...procedures in children. Our objective was to determine factors associated with the use of PS during incision and drainage procedures at a tertiary children's hospital. Methods This was a nested cohort study that combined a retrospective medical record review with prospectively collected data for children 2 months to 18 years old who had an incision and drainage procedure performed at a children's hospital over a 1-year period. Procedural sedation was defined as the use of pharmacologic agents to alter patient consciousness. Patient, lesion (eg, size and induration), provider (eg, years of experience), and emergency department (eg, patient volume and wait time) factors were analyzed. Emergency department physicians were divided into tertiles by frequency of sedation (high/medium/low) to assess provider practice variation. χ2 Analysis and multivariable logistic regression were used to identify factors associated with PS use. Results Of the 215 enrolled patients, 95 (44.2%) received PS. Ninety (94.7%) of 95 sedated patients received ketamine as their primary sedation agent. On univariate analysis, emergency department volume, wait time, duration of illness, and provider experience were not associated with PS use. With multivariable regression, patient age, abscess size, and provider frequency of sedation were all independently associated with the decision to sedate. Conclusions Patient age and abscess size are independent predictors of the use of PS for incision and drainage procedures. Provider practice patterns are also independently associated with PS use.
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