Sustainability assessment oriented to improve current systems and practices is urgently needed, particularly in the context of small farmer natural resource management systems (NRMS). Unfortunately, ...social-ecological systems (SES) theory, sustainability evaluation frameworks, and assessment methods are still foreign not only to farmers but to many researchers, students, NGOs, policy makers/operators, and other interested groups. In this paper we examine the main achievements and challenges of the MESMIS Program (Spanish acronym for Indicator-based Sustainability Assessment Framework), a 15-year ongoing effort with impact in 60 case studies and 20 undergraduate and graduate programs mainly in Ibero-America that is attempting to cope with the stated challenges. The MESMIS experience shows that it is possible to conduct sustainability assessments in the context of small farmers through a long-term, participatory, interdisciplinary, and multi-institutional approach that integrates a solid theoretical background, a field-tested operational framework, learning tools specifically devised to facilitate the understanding of sustainability as a multidimensional and dynamic concept, and a growing set of case studies to apply to and get feedback from users. Specifically, through the dissemination of the MESMIS assessment framework in a large set of case studies in a contrasting set of social-ecological contexts, we have been able to: (a) characterize the NRMS, their subsystems, and their main interactions; (b) link attributes, i.e., general systemic properties, with sustainability indicators to assess critical socioeconomic and environmental aspects of the NRMS; (c) integrate indicators through multicriteria tools and to expose the multidimensional aspects of sustainability; (d) propose an initial multiscale assessment to articulate processes and actors at different spatial scales; (e) develop multimedia learning tools, i.e., Interactive-MESMIS, to help users understand dynamic concepts, trade-offs, and counter-intuitive behavior; and (f) promote participatory processes through role-playing games and agent-based simulation models. Key challenges are related to the need to conduct long-term longitudinal studies that fully capture system dynamic properties while at the same time actively involving relevant stakeholders through creative and lasting participative processes. We outline an improved assessment framework that should help move the program in this direction.
The ability of agroecosystems to provide food ultimately depends on the regulating and supporting ecosystem services that underpin their functioning, such as the regulation of soil quality, water ...quality, soil erosion, pests, and pollinators. However, there are trade-offs between provisioning and regulating or supporting services, whose nature at the farm and plot scales is poorly understood. We analyzed data at the farm level for two agroecosystems with contrasting objectives in central Mexico: one aimed at staple crop production for self-subsistence and local markets, the other directed to a cash crop for export markets. Bivariate and multivariate trade-offs were analyzed for different crop management strategies (conventional, organic, traditional, crop rotation) and their underpinning socioeconomic drivers. There was a clear trade-off between crop yield and soil quality in self-subsistence systems. However, other expected trade-offs between yields and soil quality did not always occur, likely because of the overall good soils of the region and the low to medium input profile of most farms. Trade-offs were highly dependent on farm-specific agricultural practices; organic, traditional, and rotation management systems generally showed smaller trade-offs between yield and soil quality, pest control, and biodiversity than did conventional management systems. Perceived drivers reported by farmers included increasing prices for cash crops, rising costs of inputs, and extreme climatic events (e.g., drought, hail, frost). Farmers did not identify the regulation of soil quality, water quality, soil erosion, pests, or pollinators as important constraints. Although acceptable yields could be maintained irrespective of key regulating and supporting services according to these perceptions, current levels of soil erosion and nutrient runoff are likely to have important negative effects at the watershed scale. Sustainability in both agroecosystems could be increased substantially by promoting alternative practices aimed at maintaining biodiversity, soil quality, and soil retention.
Although deforestation remains a continuing threat to both the natural world and its resident human populations, a countervailing land cover dynamic has been observed in many nations. This process of ...landscape turnaround, the so-called forest transition, holds the potential of regenerating ecosystem services by sparing land from agricultural activities and abandoning it to forest succession. Here, we present a case study of a long-term process of forest transition that is ongoing in the Patzcuaro watershed of the state of Michoacán, Mexico. The research to be discussed comprises a remote sensing analysis designed to (1) capture the land cover impacts of a multidecadal process of trade liberalization (1996–2018); (2) ascertain the role that land tenure plays in land use dynamics affecting forest cover, and (3) resolve forest cover types into native forest, secondary vegetation, and “commodity” covers of fruit trees, in this case, avocado. Mexico presents a useful case for addressing these three design elements. Our analysis, undertaken for both private property and collective modes of resource management in five communities, reveals a forest transition annualized at 20 ha-yr−1, or a gain of eight percent for the period. This translates into a relative rate of forest transition of 0.39%-yr−1 which is three times faster than what is occurring in the temperate biome on a national scale (0.07%-yr−1). Most of the forest transition is occurring on private holdings and stems from field abandonment as farming systems intensify production with avocado plantations and cow–calf operations. As this study demonstrates, forest transitions are not occurring ubiquitously across nations but instead are highly localized occurrences driven by a myriad of distal and proximate factors involving disparate sets of stakeholders. Consequently, policy makers who are keen to expand forest transitions to fulfill their national climate action commitments under the Paris Agreement must first promote research into the complexity of landscapes and drivers of land change at regional and local scales.
Consumers are seeking for native-traditional foods to improve their intake of both nutrients and health-promoting phytochemicals. This study was designed to evaluate the difference in content of ...nutrients and bioactive compounds from handmade tortillas elaborated by a small-scale artisan producer and tortillas sold by a large food retailer available to consumers. All tortillas were analyzed for chemical composition, dietary fiber, calcium and phytochemical content, antioxidant capacity, and phenolic acids profile. Chemical and nutritional variation in the tortillas was estimated using principal component analysis. Data showed that artisan tortillas made from blue and white maize landraces had significantly (p < 0.05) higher content of nutritional and bioactive compounds compared to those of the supermarket. Handmade blue maize tortillas (HBMT) had a high content of free phenolics content and the highest antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS methods), which was around 1.7–2.1 fold higher than that of commercially produced white maize tortillas (CWMT). Total dietary fiber was higher in HBMT (15.7 ± 1.06 g/100 g) than in CWMT (11.6 ± 0.96 g/100 g). CWMT had the lowest calcium content (42.1 ± 0.9 mg/100 g) compared to handmade tortillas (155.5 ± 4.5 mg/100 g). HPLC results indicated the presence of ferulic, p-coumaric, caffeic, syringic and 4-hydroxybenzoic acids. Interestingly, handmade tortillas from blue maize had 4.5-fold ferulic acid content compared with commercially produced white maize tortillas, consequently it can be a good source of phenolic antioxidants, particularly ferulic acid. This study showed that artisan fresh tortillas had superior nutritional-nutraceutical properties compared to CWMT.
Display omitted
•Blue tortillas (BT) are a source of nutrients and health-promoting phytochemicals.•BT possessed the highest content of dietary fiber, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins.•BT had 4.5-fold high ferulic acid compared with commercial white maize tortillas.•Importance of tortillas food data generated on people nutrition has been highlighted.
The Main Map presented in this paper is the result of intensive fieldwork and mapping of 43 rural communities of the Pátzcuaro and Zirahuén basins in central-western Mexico. It shows the presence of ...handmade-tortilla workshops and considers the natural resources they demand but also their social, economic and cultural significance in the region. An in-depth survey of 111 Hand Made Tortilla Workshops gave detailed information of tortilla production, type of maize and fuelwood volume demanded in this activity. Traditional tortilla production contributes to the conservation of native maize and indigenous agriculture, and it promotes local and traditional food systems. However, it also represents a challenge given that many of these handmade tortilla workshops use open fire stoves which have negative implications regarding health, environment and pollution in rural livelihoods. This map serves as a platform for local and regional actions within a program involved in eco-technologies and sustainable livelihoods.
Recently, Mexico has launched policies of agroecological transition that seek to foster healthier agri-food systems. One of these policies is the reduction and eventual elimination of glyphosate by ...2024. Despite being the most used herbicide in Mexico and the world, little information exists about what factors determine a greater or reduced use of glyphosate in different socio-ecological contexts. This study aimed to explore different agricultural management, biophysical and social variables and their effects on glyphosate use in maize crops by smallholders (<8 ha). A questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were performed with 142 farmer families in four regions of the state of Chiapas to document the use of herbicides and glyphosate. By using regression trees, we identified those variables that determine a greater or lesser use of glyphosate for each region and jointly. The average volume of glyphosate for the four regions during an agricultural cycle was 2.7 l/ha
−1
. Sets of variables were associated with syndromes of greater use of glyphosate and herbicides in general, such as small plots (<0.67 ha), indigenous population, younger farmers, fewer family members, rainfed conditions, and plots without mechanization. These results can help the design of contextualized and flexible policies of transition, consistent with the socio-ecological heterogeneity of Mexico.
It has been suggested that agricultural land use change and modernization in agricultural production techniques are related to the loss of crop diversity. Two processes contribute to this loss; first ...is the replacement of landraces by modern varieties, and second is the abandonment of traditional crops in favor of cash crops. We studied the expression of these processes in a region that is both an agro-biodiversity and cultural center and one of the most significant fruit exporters of Mexico. We analyzed agricultural change based on the transformation of cropping areas and the primary crops’ locations in Michoacán state. We examined the crop-harvested area statistics from 1950 to 2015, and identified 23 crops as the most important in terms of harvested area and monetary value. After NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), harvested area for nine crops changed significantly: seven crops increased, and two decreased. Positive trends were observed for commercial fruits oriented to export markets, and negative trends were observed for traditional crops. These crops, such as beans and maize, are important for food security. Additionally, we analyzed how these land-use and agricultural changes overlap in zones of maize planted-area change. Using a maize-race collection database, we identified three native maize races that could be at risk due to the abandonment of maize in favor of commercial crops.
The Western Highlands of Guatemala are dominated by small-scale farming in indigenous communities. Mountain conditions and overpopulation have led to expansion of the agricultural frontier with ...consequent degradation, decreasing yields, poverty and malnutrition. Several non-government organizations (NGO) have carried out interventions to rescue the milpa system and diversify farming systems. We used the Framework for the Evaluation of Management Systems using Indicators (MESMIS) to evaluate farm sustainability after such interventions. We analysed data from four participating NGOs, interviewing 50 farmers with several years of collaboration as alternative systems, and 50 farmers of recent incorporation as reference systems. A trend towards moderate improvements was found in yields, food availability and reduced losses due to pests, diseases and climatic events. Given the environmental conditions and farm size it seems unlikely that most farms could achieve food self-sufficiency. In some cases, the increase in yields and food security correlate with a higher external input dependence. Even with agroecological interventions, external inputs might be needed. Direct indicators need to be measured in future studies for soil quality and erosion control. Even though the study cases showed regional differences, it was possible to develop a common, robust group of indicators, along with some case-specific ones.
Rural life in México has changed drastically over the past several decades in the wake of structural reforms in the 1980s and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) implemented in 1994. ...Researchers predicted dire consequences for smallholder farmers following trade liberalization and in certain respects the prophecies have been fulfilled. Indeed, many regions experienced significant out-migration as smallholders, unable to compete with global maize imports without price subsidies, sold or abandoned their lands, making way for the expansion of industrial agriculture into forests, secondary vegetation and primary crops. Nevertheless, many smallholders have adapted to the new economic environment with farming systems that manage risk by diversifying portfolios to incorporate commercialized maize and livestock production. This article examines the evolution of smallholder farming systems since the mid 1980s, when the impact of neoliberal reforms emerged, using data collected from field research on 130 smallholder farms in the Pátzcuaro Lake Watershed (PLW) in the State of Michoacán. Farmers in the PLW have been characterized as traditional peasant farmers, planting crops for subsistence, including a diverse array of domestic maize varieties and practicing limited animal husbandry with chickens, turkeys, pigs, an oxen and a cow or two for milk. But the results presented in this article show that the traditional peasant farming systems in the region have changed substantially to a highly diversified agriculture-cattle-forest system. Most notable changes include the use of fertilizers and pesticides; and the increase in livestock herd and reorientation to beef production. The results demonstrate the resilience of smallholder farmers, while at the same time raising potential concern that increased reliance on livestock and beef production specialization, might lead to shifts in farming systems that replace domestic maize varieties with hybrid corn used primarily for animal feed and thereby leaving vulnerable the genetic reservoir of traditional maize landraces.
Certain components of global food security continue to be threatened. Globalization has impacted food patterns, leading to greater homogenization of diets and the standardization of processes of food ...transformation, both in the countryside and in the cities. In Mexico, this has led to a drop in the use of native corn landraces and in the value associated with traditional practices around their growing and the processing and consumption of tortillas. The aim of this work was to analyze the main characteristics of the handmade comal tortilla system along the rural-urban gradient taking into account: (1) The type of seed and production, (2) manufacturing processes, (3) marketing channels and purpose of sales, and (4) perceptions regarding the quality of the product. Research was conducted on 41 handmade tortilla workshops located in rural areas in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin and in urban and peri-urban areas of a medium-sized city in Michoacán (Mexico). Results showed that the origin of the grain follows a gradient-like pattern: In rural areas, tortillas are made with local and native corn predominate, while in urban contexts most tortillas come from hybrid corn produced in Sinaloa or Jalisco. There is a generalized preference for white tortillas, but blue tortillas are used for personal consumption in rural areas and as a gourmet product in the city. 100% of the rural workshops make their own nixtamal, while almost 50% of the peri-urban and urban businesses buy pre-made nixtamal dough. Surprisingly, 50% of the rural handmade tortilla workshops admit that they add nixtamalized corn flour and/or wheat flour to their tortilla mix. We conclude that not all handmade comal tortillas are produced equally and, although in rural areas traditions are better preserved, these also have contradictions. We also conclude that it is important to promote the revaluation of agrobiodiversity, traditional gastronomy, and food security without sacrificing quality, nutrition, and flavor.
PDF
