For several years, the software engineering research community used eye trackers to study program comprehension, bug localization, pair programming, and other software engineering tasks. Eye trackers ...provide researchers with insights on software engineers’ cognitive processes, data that can augment those acquired through other means, such as on-line surveys and questionnaires. While there are many ways to take advantage of eye trackers, advancing their use requires defining standards for experimental design, execution, and reporting. We begin by presenting the foundations of eye tracking to provide context and perspective. Based on previous surveys of eye tracking for programming and software engineering tasks and our collective, extensive experience with eye trackers, we discuss
when
and
why
researchers should use eye trackers as well as
how
they should use them. We compile a list of typical use cases—real and anticipated—of eye trackers, as well as metrics, visualizations, and statistical analyses to analyze and report eye-tracking data. We also discuss the pragmatics of eye tracking studies. Finally, we offer lessons learned about using eye trackers to study software engineering tasks. This paper is intended to be a one-stop resource for researchers interested in designing, executing, and reporting eye tracking studies of software engineering tasks.
Background
Previous studies have consistently demonstrated gaze behaviour differences related to expertise during various surgical procedures. In micro-neurosurgery, however, there is a lack of ...evidence of empirically demonstrated individual differences associated with visual attention. It is unknown exactly how neurosurgeons see a stereoscopic magnified view in the context of micro-neurosurgery and what this implies for medical training.
Method
We report on an investigation of the eye movement patterns in micro-neurosurgery using a state-of-the-art eye tracker. We studied the eye movements of nine neurosurgeons while performing cutting and suturing tasks under a surgical microscope. Eye-movement characteristics, such as fixation (focus level) and saccade (visual search pattern), were analysed.
Results
The results show a strong relationship between the level of microsurgical skill and the gaze pattern, whereas more expertise is associated with greater eye control, stability, and focusing in eye behaviour. For example, in the cutting task, well-trained surgeons increased their fixation durations on the operating field twice as much as the novices (expert, 848 ms; novice, 402 ms).
Conclusions
Maintaining steady visual attention on the target (fixation), as well as being able to quickly make eye jumps from one target to another (saccades) are two important elements for the success of neurosurgery. The captured gaze patterns can be used to improve medical education, as part of an assessment system or in a gaze-training application.
The increase in the number of smart mobile devices has led the explosion of a variety of educational and recreational game applications. This study's purpose is to find common themes in the reward ...types of the cumulatively most-installed educational and recreational mobile games. The video games were observed by researchers from previously recorded footage available online. The most frequently occurring reward types in the most installed game applications in descending order are sensory feedback, glory, access, sustenance, facility and praise. Educational and recreational games appear to have differences in reward types present, recreational games having significantly higher median of total reward types. In the most installed game applications data set, the occurrence of every individual reward system, except praise and sensory, are significantly different between educational and recreational games. In-game rewards which seem to fit into multiple reward types are highlighted. In conclusion reward types differ in occurrence in addition to popular educational games appearing to have less reward types present than games made purely for entertainment purposes.
During music reading, performers create expectations of the upcoming music. When these expectations are violated due to changes in the notation, performers have to adjust their reading and adapt ...their motor responses to match this new information. In this study, we examine how selected background, outcome, and process measures reflect the successful handling of incongruences during music reading. Twenty-four performers were tasked with singing or playing versions of “Mary had a little lamb” in two different tonalities. Some versions contained a surprising element: a bar shifted down a tone. Selected outcome and process measures, such as performance accuracy and eye-movements during music reading (eye-time span, duration of first-pass fixations and pupil dilation), were analyzed. In sum, incongruence in music notation not only increased the number of performance mistakes, but incongruent melodies also led to micro-level changes in the reading processes. We propose that understanding the cognitive strategies for successful music reading requires going beyond the more traditional outcome measures and focus on the detailed analyses of the reading process itself.
Purpose
Microsurgical techniques require highly skilled manual handling of specialized surgical instruments. Surgical process models are central for objective evaluation of these skills, enabling ...data-driven solutions that can improve intraoperative efficiency.
Method
We built a surgical process model, defined at movement level in terms of elementary surgical actions (
n
=
4
) and targets (
n
=
4
). The model also included nonproductive movements, which enabled us to evaluate suturing efficiency and bi-manual dexterity. The elementary activities were used to investigate differences between novice (
n
=
5
) and expert surgeons (
n
=
5
) by comparing the cosine similarity of vector representations of a microsurgical suturing training task and its different segments.
Results
Based on our model, the experts were significantly more efficient than the novices at using their tools individually and simultaneously. At suture level, the experts were significantly more efficient at using their left hand tool, but the differences were not significant for the right hand tool. At the level of individual suture segments, the experts had on average 21.0 % higher suturing efficiency and 48.2 % higher bi-manual efficiency, and the results varied between segments. Similarity of the manual actions showed that expert and novice surgeons could be distinguished by their movement patterns.
Conclusions
The surgical process model allowed us to identify differences between novices’ and experts’ movements and to evaluate their uni- and bi-manual tool use efficiency. Analyzing surgical tasks in this manner could be used to evaluate surgical skill and help surgical trainees detect problems in their performance computationally.
Background
Eye tracking is a powerful tool for unobtrusive and real time assessment of workload in clinical settings. Before the complex eye tracking derived surrogates can be proactively utilized to ...improve surgical safety, the indications, validity and reliability requires careful evaluation.
Methods
We conducted a systematic review of literature from 2010 to 2020 according to PRISMA guidelines. A search on PubMed, Cochrane, Scopus, Web of science, PsycInfo and Google scholar databases was conducted on July 2020. The following search query was used" ("eye tracking" OR "gaze tracking") AND (surgery OR surgical OR operative OR intraoperative) AND (workload OR stress)". Short papers, no peer reviewed or papers in which eye-tracking methodology was not used to investigate workload or stress factors in surgery, were omitted.
Results
A total of 17 (N = 17) studies were identified eligible to this review. Most of the studies (n = 15) measured workload in simulated setting. Task difficulty and expertise were the most studied factors. Studies consistently showed surgeon's eye movements such as pupil responses, gaze patterns, blinks were associated with the level of perceived workload. However, differences between measurements in operational room and simulated environments have been found.
Conclusion
Pupil responses, blink rate and gaze indices are valid indicators of workload. However, the effect of distractions and non-technical factors on workload is underrepresented aspect in the literature even though recognized as underlying factors in successful surgery.
Celotno besedilo
Dostopno za:
DOBA, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
In this study we provide a new viewpoint on the body of literature regarding rewards in serious and educational games. The study includes a quantitative bibliometric analysis of literature in this ...context from 1969 to 2020. The dataset from the Scopus abstract and citation database was analyzed with the Bibliometrix R library. The data set was manually cleaned to contain only the relevant articles and conference papers. The data was then categorized to match the common themes. From the remaining documents, the amount of annual numbers of publications is presented and the most contributing countries are shown. The most frequent terms from the abstracts and keywords set by the authors are presented, and a co-occurrence network is drawn from the same data. The results of this study reveal that the most occurring topics in this dataset are gamification, physical activity, health, game design, and game-based learning. New directions for research are provided as the most commonly used media appear to be video games and mobile devices in addition to the literature being mostly focused on theory and not practical application.
Noncontact camera-based methods for measuring the pulse rate have been introduced in recent years. However, in previous studies, pulse-rate measurement experiments have been conducted only for adults ...and/or sleeping infants, and not for infants, who are awake. In this study, we compare the principal noncontact camera-based methods for pulse-rate measurement and identify a suitable method for infants, who are awake. We measure the pulse rate of five adults and three infants, and obtain the success rate of setting the measurement region and the root mean square error (RMSE) of the estimated pulse rate using several existing methods. Based on the obtained results, the color-based method and independent component analysis are determined as the most suitable for setting the measurement region and for signal processing, respectively
,
for infants, who are awake.
In modern multi-representational environments, software developers need to coordinate various information sources to effectively perform maintenance tasks. Although visual attention is an important ...skill in software development, our current understanding of the role of visual attention in the coordination of representations during maintenance tasks is minimal. Therefore, we applied eye-tracking to capture visual attention strategies and construct a detailed account of visual attention during debugging. Two groups of programmers with two distinct levels of experience debugged a program with the help of multiple representations. The proportion of time spent looking at each representation, the frequency of switching attention between visualrepresentations and the type of switch were investigated during consecutive phases of debugging. We found repetitive patterns in visual strategies that were associated with less expertise and lower performance. Novice developers made use of both the code and graphical representations while frequently switching between them. More experienced participants expended more efforts integrating the available information and primarily concentrated on systematically relating the code to the output. Our results informed us about the differences in program debugging strategies from a fine-grain, temporal perspective and have implications for the design of future development environments.
► Eye-tracking was applied to capture visual attention strategies of computer programmers. ► Repetitive patterns in strategies were associated with less expertise. ► Novices use both the code and graphical representations while frequently switching between them. ► Experts integrate the available information better and relate the code to the output. ► The results show the differences in debugging strategies from a finegrain, temporal perspective.
The required skills for medical personnel in surgical operating rooms are not confined to medical and technical expertise. To understand how scrub nurses perform their critical role, cognitive, ...social, and collaborative skills are at the centre of interest. To navigate in a life-critical environment and react both appropriately and in a timely manner to the surgeon's actions, nurses need to have a fast and accurate understanding of the situation. We present how this reading of the situation is conducted during microsurgeries, where a surgical microscope takes a central role in the treatment. We employed contextual observation, gaze-tracking, video recordings, and interviews to describe the reliance of the surgeons' work on the microscope, as well as the situation-understanding strategies of the nurses in such a setting. Also, we present pieces of evidence of anticipation strategies that the nurses exploit in the face of challenges due to the main surgeon's lack of attention toward them because of the constant use of the microscope. To ameliorate these circumstances, the scrub nurse proactively employs a set of mechanisms to obtain and maintain situation awareness. Lastly, we present the implications of future technologies for operating rooms aiming to improve collaborative microsurgical work and patient safety.
Celotno besedilo
Dostopno za:
BFBNIB, DOBA, GIS, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, KISLJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
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