During the last decades androgens have been used illicitly by athletes of both genders. Because of some obvious ethical limitations, mechanisms underlying the performance-enhancing effects of these ...hormone or drugs, as well as the magnitude of their effects, have been poorly addressed. This review aims to combine findings from field and from the laboratory to provide new insights into the ergogenic properties of endogenous or exogenous androgens on female athletes.
Results obtained from recent neuropsychological studies indicated that testosterone, and not the sex chromosomes, is responsible for the sexual differentiation of visuospatial neural activation. These findings could explain how males and hyperandrogenic females benefit from androgens performance-enhancing effects in sports where visuospatial abilities are closely linked to better performance. Another study conducted on elite female athletes showed that, in some athletic events, where muscle power is of critical importance, individuals with the highest free testosterone concentration significantly outperformed competitors with the lowest free testosterone concentration.
In some sport events, female athletes with high or very high androgen levels (whether it is from endogenous or exogenous origin) have an estimated competitive benefit of 2-5% over those with androgen levels within the normal female range. These findings are to be taken into account in the actual controversy about eligibility of females with hyperandrogenism to compete in women's sports.
To describe and characterise serum androgen levels and to study their possible influence on athletic performance in male and female elite athletes.
2127 observations of competition best performances ...and mass spectrometry-measured serum androgen concentrations, obtained during the 2011 and 2013 International Association of Athletics Federations World Championships, were analysed in male and female elite track and field athletes. To test the influence of serum androgen levels on performance, male and female athletes were classified in tertiles according to their free testosterone (fT) concentration and the best competition results achieved in the highest and lowest fT tertiles were then compared.
The type of athletic event did not influence fT concentration among elite women, whereas male sprinters showed higher values for fT than male athletes in other events. Men involved in all throwing events showed significantly (p<0.05) lower testosterone and sex hormone binding globulin than men in other events. When compared with the lowest female fT tertile, women with the highest fT tertile performed significantly (p<0.05) better in 400 m, 400 m hurdles, 800 m, hammer throw, and pole vault with margins of 2.73%, 2.78%, 1.78%, 4.53%, and 2.94%, respectively. Such a pattern was not found in any of the male athletic events.
Female athletes with high fT levels have a significant competitive advantage over those with low fT in 400 m, 400 m hurdles, 800 m, hammer throw, and pole vault.
Detection of testosterone doping in female athletes Handelsman, David J.; Bermon, Stéphane
Drug testing and analysis,
October 2019, 2019-Oct, 2019-10-00, 20191001, Letnik:
11, Številka:
10
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Testosterone doping remains a prevalent and potent form of drug cheating among elite athletes. In men, the urine testosterone (T) to epitestosterone (E) ratio (T/E ratio) can identify administration ...of exogenous T by its suppression of endogenous T production through strong negative feedback on endogenous T and E production as well as spill over into urine of extra testosterone. However, this mechanism may be partially inoperative in females whose much lower circulating T derives from three sources, none subject to powerful negative T feedback. Hence, additional methods to detect T doping in females are required. In this study we report two cases of elite female athletes who were sanctioned for T doping proven by measurement of serum T using liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry (LC–MS), when serial urine T and T/E ratio in one were not indicative of T doping, and in the other were nullified by incidental genetic inactivation of T glucuronidation through the uridine diphosphoglucuronosyl transferase 2B17 (UGT2B17) deletion genotype–phenotype. These findings indicate the potential for serum T measurement by LC–MS to detect T doping in female athletes, especially if implemented in the Bayesian format of an athlete biological passport.
Urine T/E ratio can screen for testosterone (T) doping in men but the underlying physiological mechanism is inoperative in females, so different testing is required. We report two female athletes whose T doping was proven by serum T measurement by liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry (LS−MS) when serial urine T/E ratios were not indicative. This shows the potential for serum T measurement by LC‐MS to detect T doping in female athletes, especially if implemented in a Bayesian athlete biological passport format.
Marathon running significantly increases breathing volumes and, consequently, air pollution inhalation doses. This is of special concern for elite athletes who ventilate at very high rates. However, ...race organizers and sport governing bodies have little guidance to support events scheduling to protect runners. A key limitation is the lack of hyper-local, high temporal resolution air quality data representative of exposure along the racecourse. This work aimed to understand the air pollution exposures and dose inhaled by athletes, by means of a dynamic monitoring methodology designed for road races. Air quality monitors were deployed during three marathons, monitoring nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), particulate matter (PMx), air temperature, and relative humidity. One fixed monitor was installed at the Start/Finish line and one mobile monitor followed the women elite runner pack. The data from the fixed monitors, deployed prior the race, described daily air pollution trends. Mobile monitors in combination with heatmap analysis facilitated the hyper-local characterization of athletes' exposures and helped identify local hotspots (e.g., areas prone to PM resuspension) which should be preferably bypassed. The estimation of inhaled doses disaggregated by gender and ventilation showed that doses inhaled by last finishers may be equal or higher than those inhaled by first finishers for O3 and PMx, due to longer exposures as well as the increase of these pollutants over time (e.g., 58.2 ± 9.6 and 72.1 ± 23.7 μg of PM2.5 for first and last man during Rome marathon). Similarly, men received significantly higher doses than women due to their higher ventilation rate, with differences of 31–114 μg for NO2, 79–232 μg for O3, and 6–41 μg for PMx. Finally, the aggregated data obtained during the 4 week- period prior the marathon can support better race scheduling by the organizers and provide actionable information to mitigate air pollution impacts on athletes' health and performance.
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•Marathon athletes are exposed to air pollution impacting health and performance.•Fixed and mobile monitors were deployed in 3 marathons and inhaled doses calculated.•Fixed monitoring prior to the marathon is key to understand pollutant hourly trends.•Mobile monitoring helps to identify hotspots and provides hyper-local exposures.•Inhaled O3 and PM doses may be higher for the slowest than for the fastest runners.
The International Association of Athletics Federations recognizes the importance of nutritional practices in optimizing an Athlete's well-being and performance. Although Athletics encompasses a ...diverse range of track-and-field events with different performance determinants, there are common goals around nutritional support for adaptation to training, optimal performance for key events, and reducing the risk of injury and illness. Periodized guidelines can be provided for the appropriate type, amount, and timing of intake of food and fluids to promote optimal health and performance across different scenarios of training and competition. Some Athletes are at risk of relative energy deficiency in sport arising from a mismatch between energy intake and exercise energy expenditure. Competition nutrition strategies may involve pre-event, within-event, and between-event eating to address requirements for carbohydrate and fluid replacement. Although a "food first" policy should underpin an Athlete's nutrition plan, there may be occasions for the judicious use of medical supplements to address nutrient deficiencies or sports foods that help the athlete to meet nutritional goals when it is impractical to eat food. Evidence-based supplements include caffeine, bicarbonate, beta-alanine, nitrate, and creatine; however, their value is specific to the characteristics of the event. Special considerations are needed for travel, challenging environments (e.g., heat and altitude); special populations (e.g., females, young and masters athletes); and restricted dietary choice (e.g., vegetarian). Ideally, each Athlete should develop a personalized, periodized, and practical nutrition plan via collaboration with their coach and accredited sports nutrition experts, to optimize their performance.
The gut microbiota consists of a cluster of microorganisms that produces several signaling molecules of a hormonal nature which are released into the blood stream and act at distal sites. There is a ...growing body of evidence indicating that microbiota may be modulated by several environmental conditions, including different exercise stimulus, as well some pathologies. Enriched bacterial diversity has also been associated with improved health status and alterations in immune system, making multiple connections between host and microbiota. Experimental evidence has shown that reduced levels and variations in the bacterial community are associated with health impairments, while increased microbiota diversity improves metabolic profile and immunological responses. So far, very few controlled studies have focused on the interactions between acute or chronic exercise and the gut microbiota. However, some preliminary experimental data obtained from animal studies or probiotics studies show some interesting results at the immune level, indicating that the microbiota also acts like an endocrine organ and is sensitive to the homeostatic and physiological changes associated with exercise. Thus, our review intends to shed some light on the interaction between gut microbiota, exercise and immunomodulation.
The main focus of this review is illness among elite athletes, how and why it occurs, and whether any measures can be taken to combat it or to prevent its onset. In particular, there is particular ...interest in exercise-induced immunodepression, which is a result of the immune system regarding exercise (e.g., prolonged, exhaustive exercise) as a challenge to its function. This promotes the inflammatory response. There is often a high incidence of illness in athletes after undertaking strenuous exercise, particularly among those competing in endurance events, not only mainly in terms of upper respiratory tract illness, but also involving gastrointestinal problems. It may well be that this high incidence is largely due to insufficient recovery time being allowed after, for example, a marathon, a triathlon, or other endurance events. Two examples of the incidence of upper respiratory tract illness in moderate versus endurance exercise are provided. In recent years, increasing numbers of research studies have investigated the origins, symptoms, and incidence of these bouts of illness and have attempted to alleviate the symptoms with supplements, sports foods, or immunonutrition. One aspect of the present review discusses iron deficiency, which has been primarily suggested to have an impact upon cell-mediated immunity. Immunonutrition is also discussed, as are new techniques for investigating links between metabolism and immune function.
During the last 2 decades, progress in deciphering the human gene map as well as the discovery of specific defective genes encoding particular proteins in some serious human diseases have resulted in ...attempts to treat sick patients with gene therapy. There has been considerable focus on human recombinant proteins which were gene-engineered and produced in vitro (insulin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-1, erythropoietin). Unfortunately, these substances and methods also became improper tools for unscrupulous athletes. Biomedical research has focused on the possible direct insertion of gene material into the body, in order to replace some defective genes in vivo and/or to promote long-lasting endogenous synthesis of deficient proteins. Theoretically, diabetes, anaemia, muscular dystrophies, immune deficiency, cardiovascular diseases and numerous other illnesses could benefit from such innovative biomedical research, though much work remains to be done. Considering recent findings linking specific genotypes and physical performance, it is tempting to submit the young athletic population to genetic screening or, alternatively, to artificial gene expression modulation. Much research is already being conducted in order to achieve a safe transfer of genetic material to humans. This is of critical importance since uncontrolled production of the specifically coded protein, with serious secondary adverse effects (polycythaemia, acute cardiovascular problems, cancer, etc.), could occur. Other unpredictable reactions (immunogenicity of vectors or DNA-vector complex, autoimmune anaemia, production of wild genetic material) also remain possible at the individual level. Some new substances (myostatin blockers or anti-myostatin antibodies), although not gene material, might represent a useful and well-tolerated treatment to prevent progression of muscular dystrophies. Similarly, other molecules, in the roles of gene or metabolic activators 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR), GW1516, might concomitantly improve endurance exercise capacity in ischaemic conditions but also in normal conditions. Undoubtedly, some athletes will attempt to take advantage of these new molecules to increase strength or endurance. Antidoping laboratories are improving detection methods. These are based both on direct identification of new substances or their metabolites and on indirect evaluation of changes in gene, protein or metabolite patterns (genomics, proteomics or metabolomics).
The influence of advanced footwear technology (thickness of light midsole foam and rigid plate) on distance running performances was analyzed during an 8-year period. Analysis of variance was used to ...measure effects of time, gender, shoe technology, and East African origin on male and female top 20 or top 100 seasonal best times in 10-kilometer races, half-marathons, and marathons. In both genders and three distance-running events, seasonal best times significantly decreased from 2017, which coincided with the introduction of the advanced footwear technology in distance running. This performance improvement was of similar magnitude in both East African and non-East African elite runners. In female elite athletes, the magnitudes (from 1.7 to 2.3%) of the decrease in seasonal best times between 2016 and 2019 were significantly higher than in their male counterparts (from 0.6 to 1.5%). Analyses of variance confirmed that the adoption of the advanced footwear technology significantly improved the top 20 seasonal best times in female half marathons and marathons and male marathons, with the improvements being more pronounced in females and in long-distance running events. The adoption of this new shoe technology improved female marathon time by ~2 min and 10 s, which represents a significant increase in performance (1.7%).
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