The mechanisms underlying dyspnea in interstitial lung disease (ILD) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are unknown.
To examine whether the relationship between inspiratory neural drive ...to the diaphragm and exertional dyspnea intensity is different in ILD and COPD, given the marked differences in static respiratory mechanics between these conditions.
We compared sensory-mechanical relationships in patients with ILD, patients with COPD, and healthy control subjects (n = 16 each) during incremental cycle exercise with diaphragmatic electromyography (EMGdi) and respiratory pressure measurements.
In patients with mild to moderate ILD or COPD with similarly reduced inspiratory capacity, the peak oxygen uptake, work rate, and ventilation were lower (P < 0.05) than in healthy control subjects. EMGdi expressed as a percentage of the maximum (EMGdi/EMGdi,max), respiratory effort (esophageal pressure expressed as percentage of the maximum), and ventilation were higher (P < 0.05) at rest and during exercise in both patients with ILD and patients with COPD than in control subjects. Each of these measurements was similar in the ILD and COPD groups. A Vt inflection and critically reduced inspiratory reserve volume occurred at a lower (P < 0.05) ventilation in the ILD and COPD groups than in control subjects. Patients with ILD had greater diaphragmatic activity, whereas patients with COPD had greater expiratory muscle activity. The relationship between dyspnea intensity and EMGdi/EMGdi,max during exercise was similar in all three groups. In ILD and COPD, descriptors alluding to inspiratory difficulty were selected more frequently, with a greater disparity between EMGdi/EMGdi,max and Vt.
Disease-specific differences in mechanics and respiratory muscle activity did not influence the key association between dyspnea intensity and inspiratory neural drive to the diaphragm.
Several studies in mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have shown a higher than normal ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide (Formula: see texte/Formula: see textco2) during ...exercise. Our objective was to examine pulmonary gas exchange abnormalities and the mechanisms of high Formula: see texte/Formula: see textco2 in mild COPD and its impact on dyspnea and exercise intolerance.
Twenty-two subjects (11 patients with GOLD Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease grade 1B COPD, 11 age-matched healthy control subjects) undertook physiological testing and a symptom-limited incremental cycle exercise test with arterial blood gas collection.
Patients (post-bronchodilator FEV1: 94 ± 10% predicted; mean ± SD) had evidence of peripheral airway dysfunction and reduced peak oxygen uptake compared with control subjects (80 ± 18 vs. 113 ± 24% predicted; P<0.05). Arterial blood gases were within the normal range and effective alveolar ventilation was not significantly different from control subjects throughout exercise. The alveolar-arterial O2 tension gradient was elevated at rest and throughout exercise in COPD (P<0.05). Formula: see texte/Formula: see textco2, dead space to tidal volume ratio (Vd/Vt), and arterial to end-tidal CO2 difference were all higher (P<0.05) in patients with COPD than in control subjects during exercise. In patients with COPD versus control subjects, there was significant dynamic hyperinflation and greater tidal volume constraints (P<0.05). Standardized dyspnea intensity ratings were also higher (P<0.05) in patients with COPD versus control subjects in association with higher ventilatory requirements. Within all subjects, Vd/Vt correlated with the Formula: see texte/Formula: see textco2 ratio during submaximal exercise (r=0.780, P<0.001).
High Vd/Vt was the most consistent gas exchange abnormality in smokers with only mild spirometric abnormalities. Compensatory increases in minute ventilation during exercise maintained alveolar ventilation and arterial blood gas homeostasis but at the expense of earlier dynamic mechanical constraints, greater dyspnea, and exercise intolerance in mild COPD.
Dyspnoea and activity limitation can occur in smokers who do not meet spirometric criteria for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) but the underlying mechanisms are unknown.Detailed ...pulmonary function tests and sensory-mechanical relationships during incremental exercise with respiratory pressure measurements and diaphragmatic electromyography (EMGdi) were compared in 20 smokers without spirometric COPD and 20 age-matched healthy controls.Smokers (mean±sd post-bronchodilator forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1)/forced vital capacity 75±4%, mean±sd FEV1 104±14% predicted) had greater activity-related dyspnoea, poorer health status and lower physical activity than controls. Smokers had peripheral airway dysfunction: higher phase-III nitrogen slopes (3.8±1.8 versus 2.6±1.1%·L(-1)) and airway resistance (difference between airway resistance measured at 5 Hz and 20 Hz 19±11 versus 12±7% at 5 Hz) than controls (p<0.05). Smokers had significantly (p<0.05) lower peak oxygen uptake (78±40 versus 107±45% predicted) and ventilation (61±26 versus 97±29 L·min(-1)). Exercise ventilatory requirements, operating lung volumes and cardio-circulatory responses were similar. However, submaximal dyspnoea ratings, resistive and total work of breathing were increased in smokers compared with controls (p<0.05); diaphragmatic effort (transdiaphragmatic pressure/maximumal transdiaphragmatic pressure) and fractional inspiratory neural drive to the diaphragm (EMGdi/maximal EMGdi) were also increased (p<0.05) mainly reflecting the reduced denominator.Symptomatic smokers at risk for COPD had greater exertional dyspnoea and lower exercise tolerance compared with healthy controls in association with greater airways resistance, contractile diaphragmatic effort and fractional inspiratory neural drive to the diaphragm.
Among patients with COPD, those with the lowest maximal inspiratory pressures experience greater breathing discomfort (dyspnea) during exercise. In such individuals, inspiratory muscle training (IMT) ...may be associated with improvement of dyspnea but the mechanisms for this are poorly understood. Therefore, we aimed to identify physiological mechanisms of improvement in dyspnea and exercise endurance following inspiratory muscle training (IMT) in patients with COPD and low maximal inspiratory pressure (Pi,max). The effects of 8 weeks of controlled IMT on respiratory muscle function, dyspnea, respiratory mechanics, and diaphragm electromyography (EMGdi) during constant-work rate cycle exercise were evaluated in patients with activity-related dyspnea (Baseline Dyspnea Index <9). Subjects were randomized to either IMT or a sham training control group (n=10 each). Twenty subjects (FEV
= 47±19 %predicted; Pi,max= -59±14 cmH
O; cycle ergometer peak work rate= 47±21 %predicted) completed the study; groups had comparable baseline lung function, respiratory muscle strength, activity-related dyspnea and exercise capacity. IMT, compared with control, was associated with greater increases in inspiratory muscle strength and endurance, with attendant improvements in exertional dyspnea and exercise endurance time (all p<0.05). After IMT, EMGdi expressed relative to its maximum (EMGdi/EMGdi,max) decreased (p<0.05) with no significant change in ventilation, tidal inspiratory pressures, breathing pattern and operating lung volumes during exercise. In conclusion, IMT improved inspiratory muscle strength and endurance in mechanically compromised patients with COPD and low Pi,max. The attendant reduction in EMGdi/EMGdi,max helped explain the decrease in perceived respiratory discomfort despite sustained high ventilation and intrinsic mechanical loading over a longer exercise duration.
In many parts of the world, the prevalence of both chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and obesity is increasing at an alarming rate. Such patients tend to have greater respiratory symptoms, ...more severe restriction of daily activities, poorer health-related quality of life, and greater health care use than their nonobese counterparts. Physiologically, increasing weight gain is associated with lung volume reduction effects in both health and disease, and this should be considered when interpreting common pulmonary function tests where lung volume is the denominator, such as FEV1/FVC and the ratio of diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide to alveolar volume, or indeed when evaluating the physiological consequences of emphysema in obese individuals. Contrary to expectation, the presence of mild to moderate obesity in COPD appears to have little deleterious effect on respiratory mechanics and muscle function, exertional dyspnea, and peak symptom-limited oxygen uptake during cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Thus, in evaluating obese patients with COPD reporting activity restriction, additional nonpulmonary factors, such as increased metabolic loading, cardiocirculatory impairment, and musculoskeletal abnormalities, should be considered. Care should be taken to recognize the presence of obstructive sleep apnea in obese patients with COPD, as effective treatment of the former condition likely conveys an important survival advantage. Finally, morbid obesity in COPD presents significant challenges to effective management, given the combined effects of erosion of the ventilatory reserve and serious metabolic and cardiovascular comorbidities that collectively predispose to an increased risk of death from respiratory failure.
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether differences in physiological responses to weight-bearing (walking) and weight-supported (cycle) exercise influence dyspnoea perception in obese ...chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients, where such discrepancies are probably exaggerated. We compared metabolic, ventilatory and perceptual responses during incremental treadmill and cycle exercise using a matched linearised rise in work rate in 18 (10 males and eight females) obese (mean ± sd body mass index 36.4 ± 5.0 kg·m(-2)) patients with COPD (forced expiratory volume in 1 s 60 ± 11% predicted). Compared with cycle testing, treadmill testing was associated with a significantly higher oxygen uptake, lower ventilatory equivalent for oxygen and greater oxyhaemoglobin desaturation at a given work rate (p<0.01). Cycle testing was associated with a higher respiratory exchange ratio (p<0.01), earlier ventilatory threshold (p<0.01) and greater peak leg discomfort ratings (p=0.01). Ventilation, breathing pattern and operating lung volumes were similar between tests, as were dyspnoea/work rate and dyspnoea/ventilation relationships. Despite significant between-test differences in physiological responses, ventilation, operating lung volumes and dyspnoea intensity were similar at any given external power output during incremental walking and cycling exercise in obese COPD patients. These data provide evidence that either exercise modality can be selected for reliable evaluation of exertional dyspnoea in this population in research and clinical settings.
Lung hyperinflation is highly prevalent in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and occurs across the continuum of the disease. A growing body of evidence suggests that lung ...hyperinflation contributes to dyspnea and activity limitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and is an important independent risk factor for mortality. In this review, we will summarize the recent literature on pathogenesis and clinical implications of lung hyperinflation. We will outline the contribution of lung hyperinflation to exercise limitation and discuss its impact on symptoms and physical activity. Finally, we will examine the physiological rationale and efficacy of selected pharmacological and non-pharmacological 'lung deflating' interventions aimed at improving symptoms and physical functioning.
AbstractThe difference between total lung capacity (TLC) by body plethysmography and alveolar volume (VA) from the single-breath lung diffusing capacity measurement provides an index of ventilation ...distribution inequalities in COPD. The relevance of these abnormalities to dyspnea and exercise intolerance across the continuum of disease severity remains unknown. Two-hundred and seventy-six COPD patients distributed across GOLD grades 1 to 4 and 67 healthy controls were evaluated. The "poorly communicating fraction" (PCF) of the TLC was estimated as the ratio (%) of TLC to VA. Healthy subjects showed significantly lower PCF values compared to GOLD grades 1 to 4 (10 ± 3% vs. 17 ± 8% vs. 27 ± 10% vs. 37 ± 10% vs. 56 ± 11%, respectively; p < 0.05). Pulmonary gas exchange impairment, mechanical ventilatory constraints and ventilation-corrected dyspnea scores worsened across PCF tertiles (p < 0.05). Of note, GOLD grades 1 and 2 patients with the highest PCF values had pronounced exercise ventilatory inefficiency and dyspnea as a limiting symptom. In fact, dyspnea was a significant contributor to exercise limitation only in those with "moderate" or "extensive" PCF (p < 0.05). A receiver operating characteristics curve analysis revealed that PCF was a better predictor of severely reduced maximal exercise capacity than traditional pulmonary function indexes including FEV1 (area under the curve (95% confidence interval) = 0.85 (0.81-0.89), best cutoff = 33.4%; p < 0.01). In conclusion, PCF is a readily available functional marker of gas exchange and mechanical abnormalities relevant to dyspnea and exercise intolerance across the COPD grades.
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