The interplay between cellular stress and immune response can be variable and sometimes contradictory. The mechanisms by which stress-activated pathways regulate the inflammatory response to a ...pathogen, in autoimmunity or during cancer progression remain unclear in many aspects, despite our recent knowledge of the signalling and transcriptional pathways involved in these diseases. In this context, over the last decade many studies demonstrated that cholesterol metabolism is an important checkpoint for immune homeostasis and cancer progression. Indeed, cholesterol is actively metabolized and can regulate, through its mobilization and/or production of active derivatives, many aspects of immunity and inflammation. Moreover, accumulation of cholesterol has been described in cancer cells, indicating metabolic addiction. The nuclear receptors liver-X-receptors (LXRs) are important regulators of intracellular cholesterol and lipids homeostasis. They have also key regulatory roles in immune response, as they can regulate inflammation, innate and adaptive immunity. Moreover, activation of LXRs has been reported to affect the proliferation and survival of different cancer cell types that show altered metabolic pathways and accumulation of cholesterol. In this minireview we will give an overview of the recent understandings about the mechanisms through which LXRs regulate inflammation, autoimmunity, and cancer, and the therapeutic potential for future treatment of these diseases through modulation of cholesterol metabolism.
The activating receptor NKG2D is peculiar in its capability to bind to numerous and highly diversified MHC class I-like self-molecules. These ligands are poorly expressed on normal cells but can be ...induced on damaged, transformed or infected cells, with the final NKG2D ligand expression resulting from multiple levels of regulation. Although redundant molecular mechanisms can converge in the regulation of all NKG2D ligands, different stimuli can induce specific cellular responses, leading to the expression of one or few ligands. A large body of evidence demonstrates that NK cell activation can be triggered by different NKG2D ligands, often expressed on the same cell, suggesting a functional redundancy of these molecules. However, since a number of evasion mechanisms can reduce membrane expression of these molecules both on virus-infected and tumor cells, the co-expression of different ligands and/or the presence of allelic forms of the same ligand guarantee NKG2D activation in various stressful conditions and cell contexts. Noteworthy, NKG2D ligands can differ in their ability to down-modulate NKG2D membrane expression in human NK cells supporting the idea that NKG2D transduces different signals upon binding various ligands. Moreover, whether proteolytically shed and exosome-associated soluble NKG2D ligands share with their membrane-bound counterparts the same ability to induce NKG2D-mediated signaling is still a matter of debate. Here, we will review recent studies on the NKG2D/NKG2D ligand biology to summarize and discuss the redundancy and/or diversity in ligand expression, regulation, and receptor specificity.
CD155 is an adhesion molecule belonging to the Nectin/Nectin-like family often overexpressed on tumor cells and involved in many different processes such as cell adhesion, migration and ...proliferation. In contrast to these pro-tumorigenic functions, CD155 is also a ligand for the activating receptor DNAM-1 expressed on cytotoxic lymphocytes including Natural Killer (NK) cells and involved in anti-tumor immune response. However, during tumor progression inhibitory receptors for CD155 are up-regulated on the surface of effector cells, contributing to an impairment of their cytotoxic capacity. In this review we will focus on the roles of CD155 as a ligand for the activating receptor DNAM-1 regulating immune surveillance against cancer and as pro-oncogenic molecule favoring tumor proliferation, invasion and immune evasion. A deeper understanding of the multiple roles played by CD155 in cancer development contributes to improving anti-tumor strategies aimed to potentiate immune response against cancer.
Cancer progression is continuously controlled by the immune system which can identify and destroy nascent tumor cells or inhibit metastatic spreading. However, the immune system and its deregulated ...activity in the tumor microenvironment can also promote tumor progression favoring the outgrowth of cancers capable of escaping immune control, in a process termed cancer immunoediting. This process, which has been classified into three phases, i.e. "elimination", "equilibrium" and "escape", is influenced by several cancer- and microenvironment-dependent factors. Senescence is a cellular program primed by cells in response to different pathophysiological stimuli, which is based on long-lasting cell cycle arrest and the secretion of numerous bioactive and inflammatory molecules. Because of this, cellular senescence is a potent immunomodulatory factor promptly recruiting immune cells and actively promoting tissue remodeling. In the context of cancer, these functions can lead to both cancer immunosurveillance and immunosuppression. In this review, the authors will discuss the role of senescence in cancer immunoediting, highlighting its context- and timing-dependent effects on the different three phases, describing how senescent cells promote immune cell recruitment for cancer cell elimination or sustain tumor microenvironment inflammation for immune escape. A potential contribution of senescent cells in cancer dormancy, as a mechanism of therapy resistance and cancer relapse, will be discussed with the final objective to unravel the immunotherapeutic implications of senescence modulation in cancer.
Celotno besedilo
Dostopno za:
DOBA, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
The Ikaros zing-finger family transcription factors (IKZF TFs) are important regulators of lymphocyte development and differentiation and are also highly expressed in B cell malignancies, including ...Multiple Myeloma (MM), where they are required for cancer cell growth and survival. Moreover, IKZF TFs negatively control the functional properties of many immune cells. Thus, the targeting of these proteins has relevant therapeutic implications in cancer. Indeed, accumulating evidence demonstrated that downregulation of Ikaros and Aiolos, two members of the IKZF family, in malignant plasma cells as well as in adaptative and innate lymphocytes, is key for the anti-myeloma activity of Immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs). This review is focused on IKZF TF-related pathways in MM. In particular, we will address how the depletion of IKZF TFs exerts cytotoxic effects on MM cells, by reducing their survival and proliferation, and concomitantly potentiates the antitumor immune response, thus contributing to therapeutic efficacy of IMiDs, a cornerstone in the treatment of this neoplasia.
Nectin2 is a member of immunoglobulin‐like cell adhesion molecules and plays a prominent role in the establishment of adherens and tight junctions. It is also upregulated on the surface of tumor and ...virus‐infected cells where it functions as a ligand for the activating receptor CD226, thus contributing to cytotoxic lymphocyte‐mediated recognition and killing of damaged cells. Little is currently known about the regulation of Nectin2 expression and, in particular, whether posttranscriptional and posttranslational mechanisms are involved. Here, we analyzed Nectin2 expression on a panel of human tumor cell lines and primary cultures and we found that Nectin2 is mainly expressed in cytoplasmic pools. Moreover, we demonstrated that ubiquitination of Nectin2 promotes its degradation and is responsible for protein intracellular retention. Indeed, inhibition of the ubiquitin pathway results in increased Nectin2 surface expression and enhances tumor cell susceptibility to NK cell cytotoxicity. Our results demonstrate a previously unknown mechanism of Nectin2 regulation revealing that the ubiquitin pathway represents a potential target of intervention in order to increase susceptibility to NK cell‐mediated lysis.
The ubiquitin pathway negatively regulates surface expression of Nectin2, a ligand for the activating NK‐cell receptor CD226. The neo‐synthetized Nectin2 is ubiquitinated before reaching the plasma membrane and either subjected to proteasomal degradation or retained intracellularly.
In healthy cells, limiting Nectin2 membrane expression may avoid a potential aberrant NK‐cell activation, while in transformed cells may represent a mechanism to evade NK‐cell surveillance.
MM evolves from a premalignant disorder, the monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS), through a phase of asymptomatic (or smoldering) MM. This progression is favored by tumor cells ...interacting within the BM with different cell types that directly promote proliferation and survival and contribute to a progressive impairment of anti-tumor immune response resulting mainly from T and natural killer (NK) cell defects. NK-cell exhausted phenotype may also depend on dysregulation of transcription factors that control NK-cell development, differentiation, and signaling transduction pathways activated upon engagement of activating and inhibitory receptors. Noteworthy, in the study by Li et al., the authors identified a ZNF683+ NK cell cluster characterized by a significant downregulation of SH2D1B gene that encodes EWS-FLI1 activated transcript 2 (EAT-2), a cytosolic adaptor protein essential for mediating SLAMF7 activation signals.
Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transcription factors play a key role in the pathogenesis of multiple myeloma (MM). The survival, proliferation and chemoresistance of malignant plasma cells largely rely on ...the activation of canonical and noncanonical NF-κB pathways. They are triggered by cancer-associated mutations or by the autocrine and paracrine production of cytokines and growth factors as well as direct interaction with cellular and noncellular components of bone marrow microenvironment (BM). In this context, NF-κB also significantly affects the activity of noncancerous cells, including mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), which have a critical role in disease progression. Indeed, NF-κB transcription factors are involved in inflammatory signaling that alters the functional properties of these cells to support cancer evolution. Moreover, they act as regulators and/or effectors of pathways involved in the interplay between MSCs and MM cells. The aim of this review is to analyze the role of NF-κB in this hematologic cancer, focusing on NF-κB-dependent mechanisms in tumor cells, MSCs and myeloma-mesenchymal stromal cell crosstalk.
Genotoxic stress can promote antitumor NK cell responses by upregulating the surface expression of activating ligands on cancer cells. Moreover, a number of studies suggested a role for soluble NK ...group 2D ligands in the impairment of NK cell tumor recognition and killing. We investigated whether genotoxic stress could promote the release of NK group 2D ligands (MHC class I-related chain MICA and MICB), as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying this event in human multiple myeloma (MM) cells. Our results show that genotoxic agents used in the therapy of MM (i.e., doxorubicin and melphalan) selectively affect the shedding of MIC molecules that are sensitive to proteolytic cleavage, whereas the release of the short MICA*008 allele, which is frequent in the white population, is not perturbed. In addition, we found that a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 10 expression is upregulated upon chemotherapeutic treatment both in patient-derived CD138(+)/CD38(+) plasma cells and in several MM cell lines, and we demonstrate a crucial role for this sheddase in the proteolytic cleavage of MIC by means of silencing and pharmacological inhibition. Interestingly, the drug-induced upregulation of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 10 on MM cells is associated with a senescent phenotype and requires generation of reactive oxygen species. Moreover, the combined use of chemotherapeutic drugs and metalloproteinase inhibitors enhances NK cell-mediated recognition of MM cells, preserving MIC molecules on the cell surface and suggesting that targeting of metalloproteinases in conjunction with chemotherapy could be exploited for NK cell-based immunotherapeutic approaches, thus contributing to avoid the escape of malignant cells from stress-elicited immune responses.
Nitric Oxide (NO) is a signaling radical, highly diffusible pleiotropic regulator of a large set of different molecular and biological pathways, including, neurotransmission, vasodilatation and ...macrophagemediated responses against infections. It is produced from the amino acid L-Arginine and oxygen by the enzymatic action of three isoforms of the Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS), differently expressed and regulated in tissues. Increasing evidence highlights the wide spectrum of action of NO in different pathologic conditions, including cancer. In this regard, a dual role for this molecule as a pro- and anti-tumorigenic mediator has been described, in a context and concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, NO exerts numerous immunologic effects, by operating as an effector molecule in innate immune responses as well as a regulator of adaptive immune components. Here, we will review recent advances in the field of biology of this pleiotropic signaling molecule in cancer, also providing a concise description of the immunoregulatory and effector activities of NO and Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS). In particular, we will summarize recent knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying the complex functions of NO in cancer pathogenesis. We will also address emerging immune-mediated mechanisms regulated by NO to provide a comprehensive view of the complex cellular interactions which control cancer progression and that can be influenced by NO at multiple levels. In the light of different immunologic effects of this molecule, the potential therapeutic implications of novel drugs targeting NO to treat cancer and to improve anti-tumor immune responses will be discussed.