Background
Laparoscopic videos are increasingly being used for surgical artificial intelligence (AI) and big data analysis. The purpose of this study was to ensure data privacy in video recordings of ...laparoscopic surgery by censoring extraabdominal parts. An inside-outside-discrimination algorithm (IODA) was developed to ensure privacy protection while maximizing the remaining video data.
Methods
IODAs neural network architecture was based on a pretrained AlexNet augmented with a long-short-term-memory. The data set for algorithm training and testing contained a total of 100 laparoscopic surgery videos of 23 different operations with a total video length of 207 h (124 min ± 100 min per video) resulting in 18,507,217 frames (185,965 ± 149,718 frames per video). Each video frame was tagged either as abdominal cavity, trocar, operation site, outside for cleaning, or translucent trocar. For algorithm testing, a stratified fivefold cross-validation was used.
Results
The distribution of annotated classes were abdominal cavity 81.39%, trocar 1.39%, outside operation site 16.07%, outside for cleaning 1.08%, and translucent trocar 0.07%. Algorithm training on binary or all five classes showed similar excellent results for classifying outside frames with a mean F1-score of 0.96 ± 0.01 and 0.97 ± 0.01, sensitivity of 0.97 ± 0.02 and 0.0.97 ± 0.01, and a false positive rate of 0.99 ± 0.01 and 0.99 ± 0.01, respectively.
Conclusion
IODA is able to discriminate between inside and outside with a high certainty. In particular, only a few outside frames are misclassified as inside and therefore at risk for privacy breach. The anonymized videos can be used for multi-centric development of surgical AI, quality management or educational purposes. In contrast to expensive commercial solutions, IODA is made open source and can be improved by the scientific community.
The ability to infer mental and affective states of others is crucial for social functioning. This ability, denoted as Theory of Mind (ToM), develops rapidly during childhood, yet results on its ...development across adolescence and into young adulthood are rare. In the present study, we tested the two‐component model, measuring age‐related changes in social‐perceptual and social‐cognitive ToM in a sample of 267 participants between 11 and 25 years of age. Additionally, we measured language, reasoning, and inhibitory control as major covariates. Participants inferred mental states from non‐verbal cues in a social‐perceptual task (Eye Test) and from stories with faux pas in a social‐cognitive task (Faux Pas Test). Results showed substantial improvement across adolescence in both ToM measures and in the covariates. Analysis with linear mixed models (LMM) revealed specific age‐related growth for the social‐perceptual component, while the age‐related increase of the social‐cognitive component fully aligned with the increase of the covariates. These results support the distinction between ToM components and indicate that adolescence is a crucial period for developing social‐perceptual ToM abilities.
Statement of contribution
What is already known on this subject?
To date, much research has been dedicated to Theory of Mind (ToM) development in early and middle childhood. However, only a few studies have examined development of ToM in adolescence.
Studies so far suggest age‐related differences in ToM between adolescents and young adults.
What this study adds
The study offers several methodological advantages including a large sample size with a continuous distribution of age (age 11–25) and the use of a comprehensive test battery to assess ToM and covariates (language, executive functions, reasoning).
The results provide evidence for asymmetries in the development of two ToM components (social‐perceptual and social‐cognitive; the two‐component account) across the studied age range:
the social perceptual component showed specific development, while the age‐related increase of the social‐cognitive component fully aligned with increase of the covariates.
Adolescence is a crucial period for developing social‐perceptual ToM abilities.
Human infants have an enormous amount to learn from others to become full-fledged members of their culture. Thus, it is important that they learn from reliable, rather than unreliable, models. In two ...experiments, we investigated whether 14-month-olds (a) imitate instrumental actions and (b) adopt the individual preferences of a model differently depending on the model’s previous reliability. Infants were shown a series of videos in which a model acted on familiar objects either competently or incompetently. They then watched as the same model demonstrated a novel action on an object (imitation task) and preferentially chose one of two novel objects (preference task). Infants’ imitation of the novel action was influenced by the model’s previous reliability; they copied the action more often when the model had been reliable. However, their preference for one of the novel objects was not influenced by the model’s previous reliability. We conclude that already by 14
months of age, infants discriminate between reliable and unreliable models when learning novel actions.
The importance of taking a lifespan approach to describe and understand human development has long been acknowledged (e.g., Baltes, 1987). Nevertheless, theoretical or empirical research that ...actually encompasses the entire lifespan, that is, from early childhood to old age, is rare. This is not surprising given the challenges such an approach entails. Many of these challenges (e.g., establishing measurement invariance between age groups) have been addressed in the previous literature, but others have not yet been sufficiently considered. The main purpose of this article is to present several examples of such largely unaddressed conceptual and methodological challenges and reflect upon possible ways to address them. We discuss the usefulness of a lifespan approach and the generalization of the challenges to other research comparing different groups, such as gender, culture, or species.
In their widely noticed study, Gergely, Bekkering, and Király (2002) showed that 14-month-old infants imitated an unusual action only if the model freely chose to perform this action and not if the ...choice of the action could be ascribed to external constraints. They attributed this kind of selective imitation to the infants' capacity of understanding the principle of rational action. In the current paper, we present evidence that a simpler approach of perceptual distraction may be more appropriate to explain their results. When we manipulated the saliency of context stimuli in the two original conditions, the results were exactly opposite to what rational imitation predicts. Based on these findings, we reject the claim that the notion of rational action plays a key role in selective imitation in 14-month-olds.
Celotno besedilo
Dostopno za:
DOBA, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
The way infants learn language is a highly complex adaptive behavior. This behavior chiefly relies on the ability to extract information from the speech they hear and combine it with information from ...the external environment. Most theories assume that this ability critically hinges on the recognition of at least some syntactic structure. Here, we show that child-directed speech allows for semantic inference without relying on explicit structural information. We simulate the process of semantic inference with machine learning applied to large text collections of two different types of speech, child-directed speech versus adult-directed speech. Taking the core meaning of causality as a test case, we find that in child-directed speech causal meaning can be successfully inferred from simple co-occurrences of neighboring words. By contrast, semantic inference in adult-directed speech fundamentally requires additional access to syntactic structure. These results suggest that child-directed speech is ideally shaped for a learner who has not yet mastered syntactic structure.
The ultracold-neutron (UCN) source at the Paul Scherrer Institute serves mainly experiments in fundamental physics. High UCN intensities are the key for progress and success in such experiments. A ...detailed understanding of all source parameters is required for future improvements. Here we present the UCN source components, elements of the neutron optics, the characterization of important related parameters like emptying times, storage times and transmission probabilities of UCNs, which are ultimately defining the UCN intensity delivered at the beamports. We also introduce a detailed simulation model of the PSI UCN source, used to analyze the measurements and to extract surface parameters. This work illustrates the successful construction and operation of a large-scale facility delivering high UCN count rate. The observed characteristics of many neutron-optics parameters has been successfully simulated in a detailed Monte-Carlo model implemented in the MCUCN code.
During the COVID-19 pandemic people were increasingly obliged to wear facial masks and to reduce the number of people they met in person. In this study, we asked how these changes in social ...interactions are associated with young children's emotional development, specifically their emotion recognition
via
the labeling of emotions. Preschoolers labeled emotional facial expressions of adults (Adult Faces Task) and children (Child Faces Task) in fully visible faces. In addition, we assessed children's COVID-19-related experiences (i.e., time spent with people wearing masks, number of contacts without masks) and recorded children's gaze behavior during emotion labeling. We compared different samples of preschoolers (4.00–5.75 years): The data for the
no-COVID-19-experience sample
were taken from studies conducted before the pandemic (Adult Faces Task:
N
= 40; Child Faces Task:
N
= 30). The data for the
with-COVID-19-experience
sample (
N
= 99) were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland between June and November 2021. The results did not indicate differences in children's labeling behavior between the two samples except for fearful adult faces. Children with COVID-19-experience more often labeled fearful faces correctly compared to children with no COVID-19 experience. Furthermore, we found no relations between children's labeling behavior, their individual COVID-19-related experiences, and their gaze behavior. These results suggest that, even though the children had experienced differences in the amount and variability of facial input due to the pandemic, they still received enough input from visible faces to be able to recognize and label different emotions.
It is well documented that in the first year after birth, infants are able to identify self-performed actions. This ability has been regarded as the basis of conscious self-perception. However, it is ...not yet known whether infants are also sensitive to aspects of the self when they cannot control the sensory feedback by means of self-performed actions. Therefore, we investigated the contribution of visual–tactile contingency to self-perception in infants. In Experiment 1, 7- and 10-month-olds were presented with two video displays of lifelike baby doll legs. The infant’s left leg was stroked contingently with only one of the video displays. The results showed that 7- and 10-month-olds looked significantly longer at the contingent display than at the non-contingent display. Experiment 2 was conducted to investigate the role of morphological characteristics in contingency detection. Ten-month-olds were presented with video displays of two neutral objects (i.e., oblong wooden blocks of approximately the same size as the doll legs) being stroked in the same way as in Experiment 1. No preference was found for either the contingent or the non-contingent display but our results confirm a significant decrease in looking time to the contingent display compared to Experiment 1. These results indicate that detection of visual–tactile contingency as one important aspect of self-perception is present very early in ontogeny. Furthermore, this ability appears to be limited to the perception of objects that strongly resemble the infant’s body, suggesting an early sensitivity to the morphology of one’s own body.
According to the two-systems account of theory of mind (ToM), understanding mental states of others involves both fast social-perceptual processes, as well as slower, reflexive cognitive operations ...(Frith and Frith, 2008; Apperly and Butterfill, 2009). To test the respective roles of specific abilities in either of these processes we administered 15 experimental procedures to a large sample of 343 participants, testing ability in face recognition and holistic perception, language, and reasoning. ToM was measured by a set of tasks requiring ability to track and to infer complex emotional and mental states of others from faces, eyes, spoken language, and prosody. We used structural equation modeling to test the relative strengths of a social-perceptual (face processing related) and reflexive-cognitive (language and reasoning related) path in predicting ToM ability. The two paths accounted for 58% of ToM variance, thus validating a general two-systems framework. Testing specific predictor paths revealed language and face recognition as strong and significant predictors of ToM. For reasoning, there were neither direct nor mediated effects, albeit reasoning was strongly associated with language. Holistic face perception also failed to show a direct link with ToM ability, while there was a mediated effect via face recognition. These results highlight the respective roles of face recognition and language for the social brain, and contribute closer empirical specification of the general two-systems account.
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