This longitudinal study aimed at comparing heart rate variability (HRV) in elite athletes identified either in 'fatigue' or in 'no-fatigue' state in 'real life' conditions.
57 elite Nordic-skiers ...were surveyed over 4 years. R-R intervals were recorded supine (SU) and standing (ST). A fatigue state was quoted with a validated questionnaire. A multilevel linear regression model was used to analyze relationships between heart rate (HR) and HRV descriptors total spectral power (TP), power in low (LF) and high frequency (HF) ranges expressed in ms(2) and normalized units (nu) and the status without and with fatigue. The variables not distributed normally were transformed by taking their common logarithm (log10).
172 trials were identified as in a 'fatigue' and 891 as in 'no-fatigue' state. All supine HR and HRV parameters (Beta±SE) were significantly different (P<0.0001) between 'fatigue' and 'no-fatigue': HRSU (+6.27±0.61 bpm), logTPSU (-0.36±0.04), logLFSU (-0.27±0.04), logHFSU (-0.46±0.05), logLF/HFSU (+0.19±0.03), HFSU(nu) (-9.55±1.33). Differences were also significant (P<0.0001) in standing: HRST (+8.83±0.89), logTPST (-0.28±0.03), logLFST (-0.29±0.03), logHFST (-0.32±0.04). Also, intra-individual variance of HRV parameters was larger (P<0.05) in the 'fatigue' state (logTPSU: 0.26 vs. 0.07, logLFSU: 0.28 vs. 0.11, logHFSU: 0.32 vs. 0.08, logTPST: 0.13 vs. 0.07, logLFST: 0.16 vs. 0.07, logHFST: 0.25 vs. 0.14).
HRV was significantly lower in 'fatigue' vs. 'no-fatigue' but accompanied with larger intra-individual variance of HRV parameters in 'fatigue'. The broader intra-individual variance of HRV parameters might encompass different changes from no-fatigue state, possibly reflecting different fatigue-induced alterations of HRV pattern.
Celotno besedilo
Dostopno za:
DOBA, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
1 Université Paris 13, Laboratoire "Réponses cellulaires et fonctionnelles à l'hypoxie," Bobigny; 2 Centre National de Ski Nordique, Prémanon; 3 Ecole Nationale de Ski et d'Alpinisme, Chamonix; 4 ...Laboratoire de Biochimie, Hôpital Henri-Mondor, Créteil; 5 Laboratoire National de Dépistage du Dopage, Chatenay-Malabry; 6 Laboratoire de Physiologie-Biologie du Sport, Faculté de Médecine, Clermont-Ferrand; 7 Plateforme de BioMonitoring, Inserm U645/Unité Propre de Recherche et dEnseignement Supérieur EA2284, Establissement Français du Sang Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Besançon, France; and 8 University of Copenhagen, Department of Pharmacology, The Panum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark
Submitted 8 July 2005
; accepted in final form 14 September 2005
The efficiency of "living high, training low" (LHTL) remains controversial, despite its wide utilization. This study aimed to verify whether maximal and/or submaximal aerobic performance were modified by LHTL and whether these effects persist for 15 days after returning to normoxia. Last, we tried to elucidate whether the mechanisms involved were only related to changes in oxygen-carrying capacity. Eleven elite middle-distance runners were tested before (Pre), at the end (Post1), and 15 days after the end (Post2) of an 18-day LHTL session. Hypoxic group (LHTL, n = 5) spent 14 h/day in hypoxia (6 nights at 2,500 m and 12 nights at 3,000 m), whereas the control group (CON, n = 6) slept in normoxia (1,200 m). Both LHTL and CON trained at 1,200 m. Maximal oxygen uptake and maximal aerobic power were improved at Post1 and Post2 for LHTL only (+7.1 and +3.4% for maximal oxygen uptake, +8.4 and +4.7% for maximal aerobic power, respectively). Similarly oxygen uptake and ventilation at ventilatory threshold increased in LHTL only (+18.1 and +12.2% at Post1, +15.9 and +15.4% at Post2, respectively). Heart rate during a 10-min run at 19.5 km/h decreased for LHTL at Post2 (4.4%). Despite the stimulation of erythropoiesis in LHTL shown by the 27.4% increase in serum transferrin receptor and the 10.1% increase in total hemoglobin mass, red cell volume was not significantly increased at Post1 (+9.2%, not significant). Therefore, both maximal and submaximal aerobic performance in elite runners were increased by LHTL mainly linked to an improvement in oxygen transport in early return to normoxia and probably to other process at Post2.
intermittent hypoxia; maximal oxygen uptake; carbon monoxide rebreathing technique; soluble transferrin receptor; erythroid burst-forming unit
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: J. V. Brugniaux, UFR SMBH, 74 rue Marcel Cachin, 93017 Bobigny cedex, France (e-mail: jbrugniaux{at}free.fr )
Related articles in Journal of Applied Physiology:
Corrigendum
Journal of Applied Physiology 2006 100: 1435.
Full Text
This study tested the effects of "living high-training low" (Hi-Lo) on aerobic performance and economy of work in elite athletes. Forty endurance athletes (cross-country skiers, swimmers, runners) ...performed 13-18 consecutive days of training at 1,200 m altitude, by sleeping at 1,200 m (LL, n = 20) or in hypoxic rooms with 5-6 nights at 2,500 m followed by 8-12 nights at 3,000-3,500 m (HL, n = 20). The athletes were evaluated before (pre-), one (post-1) and 15 days (post-15) after Hi-Lo. Economy was assessed from two sub-maximal tests, one non-specific (cycling) and one specific (running or swimming). From pre- to post-1: V(O2)max increased both in HL (+ 7.8%, P < 0.01) and in LL (+ 3.3%, P < 0.05), peak power output (PPO) tended to increase more (P=0.06) in HL (+ 4.1%, P < 0.01) than in LL (+ 1.9%). At post-15, V(O2)max has returned to pre-values in both groups, PPO increased more (P < 0.05) in HL (+ 8.3%, P < 0.01) than in LL (+ 3.8%), V(O2) and power at respiratory compensation point (RCP) increased more (P < 0.05) in HL (+ 9.5%, P < 0.01 and + 11.2%, P < 0.01) than in LL (+ 3.2 and + 3.3%). Cycling mechanical efficiency (8-5%) and economy during specific locomotion (7-7%) increased (P < 0.05) in both groups. This study shows that, for a similar increase in V(O2)max HL had a greater increase in PPO than LL. The efficiency of Hi-Lo is also evidenced 15 days later by higher V(O2) and power at RCP. This study emphasizes that during the post-altitude period, economy of work greatly increases in both groups.
The "living high-training low" model (LHTL), i.e., training in normoxia but sleeping/living in hypoxia, is designed to improve the athletes performance. However, LHTL efficacy still remains ...controversial and also little is known about the duration of its potential benefit. This study tested whether LHTL enhances aerobic performance in athletes, and if any positive effect may last for up to 2 weeks after LHTL intervention. Eighteen swimmers trained for 13 days at 1,200 m while sleeping/living at 1,200 m in ambient air (control, n=9) or in hypoxic rooms (LHTL, n=9, 5 days at simulated altitude of 2,500 m followed by 8 days at simulated altitude of 3,000 m, 16 h day(-1)). Measures were done before 1-2 days (POST-1) and 2 weeks after intervention (POST-15). Aerobic performance was assessed from two swimming trials, exploring .VO(2max) and endurance performance (2,000-m time trial), respectively. Reticulocyte, serum EPO and soluble transferrin receptor responses were not altered by LHTL, whereas reticulocytes decreased in controls. In POST-1 (vs. before): red blood cell volume increased in LHTL only (+8.5%, P=0.03), .VO(2max) tended to increase more in LHTL (+8.1%, P=0.09) than in controls (+2.5%, P=0.21) without any difference between groups (P=0.42) and 2,000-m performance was unchanged with LHTL. In POST-15, both performance and hematological parameters were similar to initial levels. Our results indicate that LHTL may stimulate red cell production, without any concurrent amelioration of aerobic performance. The absence of any prolonged benefit after LHTL suggests that this LHTL model cannot be recommended for long-term purposes.
The "living high-training low" (LHTL) model is frequently used to enhance aerobic performance. However, the clinical tolerance and acclimatization process to this intermittent exposure needs to be ...examined. Forty one athletes from three federations (cross-country skiers, n=11; swimmers, n=18; runners, n=12) separately performed a 13 to 18-day training at the altitude of 1,200 m, by sleeping either at 1,200 m (CON) or in hypoxic rooms (HYP), with an O2 fraction corresponding to 2,500 m (5 nights for swimmers and 6 for skiers and runners), 3,000 m (6 nights for skiers, 8 for swimmers and 12 for runners) and 3,500 m (6 nights for skiers). Measurements performed before, 1 or 15 days after training were ventilatory response (HVRe) and desaturation (deltaSaO2e) during hypoxic exercise, an evaluation of cardiac function by echocardiography, and leukocyte count. Lake Louise AMS score and arterial O2 saturation during sleep were measured daily for HYP. Subjects did not develop symptoms of AMS. Mean nocturnal SaO2 decreased with altitude down to 90% at 3,500 m and increased with acclimatization (except at 3,500 m). Leukocyte count was not affected except at 3,500 m. The heart function was not affected by LHTL. Signs of ventilatory acclimatization were present immediately after training (increased HVRe and decreased deltaSaO2e) and had disappeared 15 days later. In conclusion, LHTL was well tolerated and compatible with aerobic training. Comparison of the three patterns of training suggests that a LHTL session should not exceed 3,000 m, for at least 18 days, with a minimum of 12 h day(-1) of exposure.
The "living high-training low" model (Hi-Lo) may improve aerobic performance in athletes, and the main mechanism of this improvement is thought to be augmented erythropoiesis. A positive effect of ...Hi-Lo has been demonstrated previously by using altitudes of 2,000-3,000 m. Since the rate of erythropoiesis is altitude-dependent, we tested whether a higher altitude (3,500 m) during Hi-Lo increases erythropoiesis and maximal aerobic performance. Nordic skiers trained for 18 days at 1,200 m, while sleeping at 1,200 m in ambient air (control group, n = 5) or in hypoxic rooms (Hi-Lo, n = 6; 3 x 6 days at simulated altitudes of 2,500, 3,000 and finally 3,500 m, 11 h day(-1)). Measurements were done before, during (blood samples only) and 2 weeks after the intervention (POST). Maximal aerobic performance was examined from VO(2max) and time to exhaustion (T(exh)) at vVO(2max) (minimum speed associated with VO(2max)), respectively. Erythropoietin and soluble transferrin receptor responses were higher during Hi-Lo, whereas reticulocytes did not change. In POST (vs. before): hematological parameters were similar to basal levels, as well as red blood cell volume, being 2.68 +/- 0.83 l (vs. 2.64+/-0.54 l) in Hi-Lo and 2.62+/-0.57 l (vs. 2.87 +/- 0.59 l) in controls. At that time, neither VO(2max) nor T(exh) were improved by Hi-Lo, VO(2max) being non-significantly decreased by 2.0% (controls) and 3.7% (Hi-Lo). The present results suggest that increasing the altitude up to 3,500 m during Hi-Lo stimulates erythropoiesis but does not confer any advantage for maximal O2 transport.
OBJECTIVETo evaluate, in critically ill adults, factors associated with impaired sympathovagal balance.
DESIGNOne-month inception cohort study.
SETTINGTwenty-six-bed medical intensive care unit of a ...teaching hospital.
PATIENTSCritically ill adults with an expected duration of intensive care unit stay of ≥48 hrs were enrolled. Patients with permanent arrhythmia or cardiac pacing were not included.
INTERVENTIONSNone.
MEASUREMENT AND MAIN RESULTS Sympathovagal balance was assessed on the day after intensive care unit admission by the low-frequency/high-frequency ratio obtained from spectral components of heart rate signaloverall variability, low frequency, and high frequency.
RESULTSForty-one patients, 13 with sepsis and 28 without sepsis, were assessed. Predictors of low-frequency/high-frequency ratio with the automatic interaction detection method were sepsis and age. Binary logit analysis adjusted for age showed that sepsis remained a strong and independent factor of a low-frequency/high-frequency ratio of <1.50, with an odds ratio of 3.63 (95% confidence interval, 1.47–9.01, p = .005). Use of mechanical ventilation, catecholamines, or sedation did not add any information. The use of the low-frequency/high-frequency ratio in diagnosing sepsis may be supported by a likelihood ratio for low frequency/high frequency <1 at 6.47.
CONCLUSIONSThis work suggests that impaired cardiac variability and notably sympathovagal balance (i.e., a low-frequency/high-frequency ratio <1.0) may be a diagnostic test for sepsis.
Opuntia ficus indica (OFI) has many physiological effects, but a relationship between OFI and heart-rate variability (HRV) has never been established. The aim of this study was to describe the ...effects of a diet supplement of OFI on HRV in athletes. The first day, heart rate (HR) was measured at rest in supine (SU) and standing (ST) positions to analyze HRV in 10 athletes, followed by a randomized assignment to an OFI (5) or placebo (5) group. The next day, the athletes repeated the HRV test. One month later the crossover protocol was applied. In OFI, the high-frequency-activity HF(SU) (1,773 ± 2,927 vs. 5,856 ± 8,326 ms2, p < .05), HF(ST) (295 ± 313 vs. 560 ± 515 ms2, p < .05), and low-frequency LF(U) (1,621 ± 1,795 vs. 6,029 ± 9,007 ms2, p < .01) increased. HR(SU) (66 ± 13 vs. 57 ± 11 beats/min, p < .01) and HR(ST) (87 ± 11 vs. 76 ± 9 beats/min, p < .01) decreased. A diet supple-ment of OFI increases HF and LF activities and decreases HR.
Changes in heart rate variability induced by an intermittent exposure to hypoxia were evaluated in athletes unacclimatized to altitude. Twenty national elite athletes trained for 13 days at 1200 m ...and either lived and slept at 1200 m (live low, train low, LLTL) or between 2500 and 3000 m (live high, train low, LHTL). Subjects were investigated at 1200 m prior to and at the end of the 13-day training camp. Exposure to acute hypoxia (11.5% O(2)) during exercise resulted in a significant decrease in spectral components of heart rate variability in comparison with exercise in normoxia: total power (p < 0.001), low-frequency component. LF (p < 0.001), high-frequency component, HF (p < 0.05). Following acclimatization, the LHTL group increased its LF component (p < 0.01) and LF/HF ratio during exercise in hypoxia after the training period. In parallel, exposure to intermittent hypoxia caused an increased ventilatory response to hypoxia. Acclimatization modified the correlation between the ventilatory response to hypoxia at rest and the difference in total power between normoxia and hypoxia (r (2) = 0.65, p < 0.001). The increase in total power, LF component, and LF/HF ratio suggests that intermittent hypoxic training increased the response of the autonomic nervous system mainly through increased sympathetic activity.
The autonomic and cardiovascular adaptations to hypoxia are opposite to those resulting from aerobic training. We investigated (1) whether exposure to hypoxia in a live high-train low (LHTL) session ...limits the autonomic and cardiovascular adaptations to training, and (2) whether such interactions remain 15 days after the end of the LHTL. Eighteen national swimmers trained for 13 days at 1,200 m, living (16 h day(-1)) either at 1,200 m (live low-train low, LLTL) or at a simulated height of 2,500-3,000 m (LHTL). Subjects were investigated at 1,200 m before and at the end of the training session, and after the following 15 days of sea-level training. Cardiovascular parameters and the autonomic control assessed by spectral analysis of R-R and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) variability were obtained in the resting supine position and in response to an orthostatic test. At the end of the 13-day training, resting heart rate (HR) and sympathetic modulation on heart decreased in LLTL (-10.1% and -25.4%, P<0.01, respectively) but not in LHTL (-5.8, -15.5%, respectively). Total peripheral resistance (TPR) and DBP became higher in LHTL than in LLTL (P<0.05). Stroke index decreased in both groups during the tilt test, counteracted by an increase in HR and sympathetic modulation to the heart and vasculature, and a decrease in vagal modulation to the heart. After the following 15-day sea-level training, differences in TPR and DBP between groups disappeared. During an LHTL session, adaptations to hypoxia interacted with the autonomic and cardiovascular adaptations to training. However, these interactions did not limit the adaptations to the following sea-level training.
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