Do We Become More Prosocial as We Age, and if So, Why? Mayr, Ulrich; Freund, Alexandra M.
Current directions in psychological science : a journal of the American Psychological Society,
06/2020, Letnik:
29, Številka:
3
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Older adults contribute—through charitable donations or volunteering—more to the common good than younger adults, an age difference that has profound society-level implications. Yet the reasons for ...this difference are not well understood. Evidence suggests that a purely altruistic concern for the common good is a major motivation for prosocial behavior and that this concern increases across adulthood. We argue that this finding, and prosocial behavior in general, is better understood using a value-based decision framework than through traditional dual-process accounts. Following the value-based decision approach, we derive specific hypotheses about life-span changes in motivation or resources as factors that explain why older adults show an increased concern for the well-being of other people.
The central argument of this article is that historical changes in longevity in Western societies, globalization, and the weakening of social expectations regarding the timing of developmental goals ...lead to a compression of the time for pursuing highly demanding developmental goals related to work and family in late young and middle adulthood. The expectation of longevity might lead adults to construct a "bucket list," postponing important leisure and social goals to the postretirement phase. Jointly, the weakening of age-related social expectations and the long postretirement phase in Western societies might result in a stronger segregation of the life course: education in "emerging adulthood," work and family in later young and middle adulthood, leisure and social goals in later adulthood. This segregation also conforms to a Western cultural script following the Protestant work ethic of delaying gratification by pursuing obligatory goals first (work, family) and only then turn to "play" after retirement (leisure, social goals), a time with relatively few obligations and social expectations. The segmentation of the life course has implications for self-regulatory demands, such that the importance of goal selection increases in emerging adulthood, the importance of managing multiple goals in late young and middle adulthood, and the importance of self-regulation for the pursuit of ill-defined goals in old age. Taken together, historical changes in the increased life expectancy in Western countries and weakened age-related expectations represent a challenge and an opportunity for developmental regulation.
Public Significance Statement
Work and family tasks are often pushed into later young and middle adulthood, leaving relatively little time for these highly demanding tasks during middle adulthood. In addition, the unprecedented longevity creates the expectation of a long postretirement phase. Together, this might lead middle-aged adults to postpone time-consuming leisure and social goals to the postretirement phase (i.e., the bucket list effect). In consequence, adulthood might become more segmented into emerging adulthood as dominated by exploration and education, late young and middle adulthood by work and family, and old age by leisure and social goals.
As humans age, they become more selective regarding their personal goals 1 and social partners 2. Whereas the selectivity in goals has been attributed to losses in resources (e.g., physical strength) ...3, the increasing focus on emotionally meaningful partners is, according to socioemotional selectivity theory, driven by the awareness of one’s decreasing future lifetime 2. Similar to humans, aging monkeys show physical losses 4 and reductions in social activity 2, 5–7. To disentangle a general resource loss and the awareness of decreasing time, we combined field experiments with behavioral observations in a large age-heterogeneous population of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at La Forêt des Singes. Novel object tests revealed a loss of interest in the nonsocial environment in early adulthood, which was modulated by the availability of a food reward. Experiments using vocal and visual representations of social partners indicated that monkeys maintained an interest in social stimuli and a preferential interest in friends and socially important individuals into old age. Old females engaged in fewer social interactions, although other group members continued to invest in relationships with them. Consequently, reductions in sociality were not due to a decrease in social interest. In conclusion, some of the motivational shifts observed in aging humans, particularly the increasing focus on social over nonsocial stimuli, may occur in the absence of a limited time perspective and are most likely deeply rooted in primate evolution. Our findings highlight the value of nonhuman primates as valuable models for understanding human aging 8, 9.
Display omitted
•We studied social and cognitive aging in a large age-heterogeneous group of monkeys•Experiments and observations revealed differential motivational shifts with age•Monkeys shifted their focus to the social domain and became socially more selective•Monkeys maintained their general interest in social information into very old age
Almeling et al. investigated motivational changes with age in Barbary macaques to explore the foundations of cognitive aging. The monkeys lost interest in the physical environment relatively early in adulthood, whereas they maintained an interest in social information into very old age, irrespective of a decrease in social activity.
Objectives
Without pharmaceutical measures available, endorsement of protective behaviours, such as hygiene behaviours, social distancing, and adherence to recommended behaviours in case of symptoms ...is of key importance to curb the ongoing COVID‐19 pandemic. Based on an extended version of the protection motivation theory, this study examined the role of perceived risks to oneself and to others, self‐efficacy, response efficacy, and perceived social norms for intentions to and the endorsement of several protective behaviours and alternative behaviours known to be ineffective. Further, it was hypothesised that effects of risk perceptions depended on high levels of self‐efficacy.
Design
Data were collected by telephone at the beginning of the lockdown in Switzerland with a large sample (N = 1,009) representative of the adult Swiss population.
Methods
All predictors (self‐efficacy, response efficacy, perceived social norms, intentions) but risk perceptions were assessed for hygiene behaviours, social distancing, adherence to recommended behaviours in case of symptoms, and alternative measures known to be ineffective.
Results
Across all analyses of intentions for and endorsement of protective and alternative behaviours, response efficacy and self‐efficacy emerged as the most important predictors. Social norms were mainly related to intentions, but not to behaviours. The different risk perceptions were rarely and inconsistently related to intentions and behaviours. No consistent pattern of interactions between self‐efficacy and risk perceptions emerged.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that even in the face of a pandemic of an unknown virus, the resources (self‐efficacy, response efficacy) rather than the risk perceptions have the potential to promote protective behaviours.
Four studies utilizing different methodological approaches investigated adult age-related differences in altruism (i.e., contributions to the public good) and the self-centered value of increasing ...personal wealth. In Study 1, data from the World Values Survey (World Values Survey Association, 2009) provided 1st evidence of a negative association between age and the self-reported wish to be rich. Ecological concerns, a form of contributing to the public good, were positively related to age. Study 2 investigated whether these values are expressed behaviorally when participants solved a complex problem that allowed striving for monetary gains or contributing to a public good. Confirming hypotheses, young adults' strategies were consistent with the aim of optimizing personal financial gain, and older adults' strategies with the aim to contribute to the public good. Studies 3 and 4 showed that older adults were more likely than younger and middle-aged adults to donate money to a good cause than to keep it for themselves. Study 4 manipulated participants' future time perspective as a factor potentially contributing to age-related differences. Partly confirming hypotheses, a longer time perspective reduced donations by older adults, but a shorter time perspective did not increase donations by younger adults. These studies suggest that older adults not only report valuing contributions to the public good more highly but also are more likely to behave altruistically than younger adults. All studies used cross-sectional designs that prevent a strict test of developmental trajectories but rather provide age-related differences at 1 point in time, representing a 1st step in investigating adult age-related differences in altruism.
Prosociality (i.e., voluntary thoughts and actions intended to benefit somebody else) is arguably essential for positive social relationships. The present research investigated under what conditions ...a prosocial focus has positive effects on the subjective well-being of a prosocial person. We addressed this question in an intervention study of daily social interactions. All participants (N = 295, 57.6% women, age 19-88 years) started the study with a baseline day with no intervention. Participants then underwent a video-based intervention that trained them to focus on either the well-being of others or the well-being of themselves. Participants applied the corresponding focus in social interactions on the next day. Compared with baseline, focusing on others did not significantly affect subjective well-being, whereas focusing on self significantly reduced subjective well-being (the latter effect was further moderated by age and relationship closeness). The difference between self- and other focus was moderated by age: Younger participants (<36 years) reported lower subjective well-being in the self-focus condition, whereas older adults (>68 years) showed the opposite effect (there was no difference in the middle-aged adults). Taken together, the results suggest that focusing on a social partner increases concerns about the partner's well-being but not necessarily one's own well-being. In contrast, focusing on oneself reduces concerns about the partner's well-being and-particularly for young adults-one's own well-being, rendering a strong focus on oneself a potential risk factor for young adults' well-being. Further research is needed to understand the negative effect of other- versus self-focus on older adults' well-being.
Objective: Behavioral measures have proven indispensable to slow down the spread of COVID-19. However, adopting new health behaviors is generally challenging. This study aimed at identifying ...determinants of adopting protective behaviors over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic. To explain adherence to protective behaviors over time, this study applied an extended version of the protection motivation theory combined with objective contextual pandemic-specific measures. Method: Six measurement points covered a period of 15 months during the COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland. The sample of N = 4,001 (Mage = 53.1, SDage = 19.3, rangeage = 18-98, 49.2% female) participated via telephone or online. Data were analyzed on inter- and intraindividual levels using generalized estimating equations with intentions and self-reported engagement in four protective behaviors (hygiene behaviors, physical distancing, adherence to recommendations in case of symptoms, and mask wearing) as outcomes. Results: Over time, response efficacy and self-efficacy were the most important predictors for all intentions and self-reported behaviors and on both levels of analysis. Moreover, intentions also emerged as important predictor of self-reported behavior. Social norms, measured as subjectively expected disapproval from others, were mostly negatively related to intentions and self-reported behaviors on the interindividual level, but less consistently on the intraindividual level. Perceived risks to oneself and others, as well as objective, contextual variables (incidences, mortality, stringency index) showed inconsistent effects. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that threat appraisals (e.g., risk perceptions) are less important than positive beliefs about the behavior (i.e., coping appraisals) for the adherence to protective behaviors during a pandemic.
Objetivo: Las medidas de comportamiento han demostrado ser indispensables para frenar la propagación de COVID-19. Sin embargo, adoptar nuevos comportamientos de salud generalmente es un desafío. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo identificar los determinantes de la adopción de comportamientos protectores en el transcurso de la pandemia de COVID-19. Para explicar la adherencia a los comportamientos de protección a lo largo del tiempo, este estudio aplicó una versión extendida de la Teoría de la Motivación de Protección combinada con medidas objetivas contextuales específicas de la pandemia. Métodos: Seis puntos de medición cubiertos en un período de 15 meses durante la pandemia de COVID-19 en Suiza. La muestra de N=4,001 (Medad=53.1, DSedad=19.3, rango de edad=18-98, 49.2% féminas) participó vía teléfono o en línea. Los datos se analizaron en niveles interindividuales e intraindividuales utilizando ecuaciones de estimación generalizadas con intenciones y compromiso auto informado en cuatro comportamientos de protección (comportamientos de higiene, distanciamiento físico, cumplimiento de las recomendaciones en caso de síntomas y uso de máscaras) como resultados. Resultados: Con el tiempo, la eficacia de la respuesta y la autoeficacia fueron los predictores más importantes para todas las intenciones y comportamientos auto informados y en ambos niveles de análisis. Además, las intenciones también surgieron como un predictor importante del comportamiento auto informado. Las normas sociales, medidas como la desaprobación esperada subjetivamente de los demás, se relacionaron negativamente en su mayoría con las intenciones y los comportamientos auto informados en el nivel interindividual, pero menos consistentemente en el nivel intraindividual. Los riesgos percibidos para uno mismo y para los demás, así como las variables contextuales objetivas (incidencias, mortalidad, índice de rigurosidad) mostraron efectos inconsistentes. Conclusiones: este estudio demuestra que las valoraciones de amenazas (p. ej., percepciones de riesgo) son menos importantes que las creencias positivas sobre el comportamiento (p. ej., valoraciones de afrontamiento) para la adherencia a conductas protectoras durante una pandemia.
Public Significance StatementThe findings of this study can inform public health strategies to promote adherence to protective behaviors during a pandemic. By identifying response efficacy and self-efficacy as relevant predictors of behavior over time, the study highlights the importance of emphasizing individuals' perceived ability to engage in protective behaviors and the effectiveness of these behaviors.
Abstract
Objectives
Goal orientation tends to shift from predominantly striving for gains to maintenance and loss avoidance across adulthood. A dominant hypothesis states that age-related increases ...in losses drive the motivational shift. The present study tests this hypothesis and an alternative, namely that perceived accumulation of resources/assets and discrepancy between the actual and desired state underlie the stronger maintenance and loss-avoidance orientation in older than younger adults.
Methods
Data from N = 182 U.S. adult participants on Amazon Mechanical Turk (preregistered; 50.0% female; 19–77 years, M = 45.1, SD = 15.86) comprise measures of demographics, goal orientation in 16 selected life domains as well as perceived accumulation, losses, actual-desired discrepancy in the same domains.
Results
Multilevel modeling analyses showed that, as expected and confirming prior research, gain orientation decreased and maintenance orientation increased with age. Moreover, both perceived losses and accumulation of resources/assets increased with age, while the actual-desired discrepancy decreased. Larger perceived accumulation and smaller actual-desired discrepancies were associated with stronger maintenance orientation. Regardless of age, a smaller actual-desired discrepancy was also associated with stronger loss-avoidance orientation. Contrary to predictions, perceived losses were negatively associated with gain orientation, but not significantly associated with maintenance or loss-avoidance orientation.
Discussion
Results replicate the shift in goal orientation across adulthood. Speaking against the loss hypothesis, perceived accumulation of resources/assets and actual-desired discrepancy seem to play an important role in determining goal orientation over adulthood, while the role of perceived losses may be less significant than commonly assumed.
Age differences in monetary decisions may emerge because younger and older adults perceive the value of outcomes differently. Yet, age‐differential effects of monetary rewards on decisions are not ...well understood. Most laboratory studies on aging and decision making have used scenarios in which rewards were merely hypothetical (decisions did not have any real consequences) or in which only small amounts of money were at stake. In the current study, we compared younger adults' (20–29 years) and older adults' (61–82 years) decisions in probabilistic choice problems with real or hypothetical rewards. Decision‐contingent rewards were in a typical range of previous studies (gains of up to ~4.25 USD) or substantially scaled up (gains of up to ~85 USD per participant). Reward type (real vs. hypothetical) affected decision quality, including value maximization, switching between options, and dominance violations (choices of an option that was inferior to another option in all respects). Decision quality was markedly better with real than hypothetical rewards in older adults and correlated with numeracy in both age groups. However, we found no evidence that reward type affected people's risk preferences. Overall, the findings portray a fairly positive picture regarding the use of hypothetical scenarios to assess preferences: With carefully prepared instructions, people from different age groups indicate preferences in hypothetical scenarios that match their decisions with real and much higher rewards. One advantage of using real rewards is that they help to reduce decision noise.
PDF
