We present a new observation‐based estimate of the global oceanic carbon dioxide (CO2) sink and its temporal variation on a monthly basis from 1998 through 2011 and at a spatial resolution of 1°×1°. ...This sink estimate rests upon a neural network‐based mapping of global surface ocean observations of the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) from the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas database. The resulting pCO2 has small biases when evaluated against independent observations in the different ocean basins, but larger randomly distributed differences exist particularly in high latitudes. The seasonal climatology of our neural network‐based product agrees overall well with the Takahashi et al. (2009) climatology, although our product produces a stronger seasonal cycle at high latitudes. From our global pCO2 product, we compute a mean net global ocean (excluding the Arctic Ocean and coastal regions) CO2 uptake flux of −1.42 ± 0.53 Pg C yr−1, which is in good agreement with ocean inversion‐based estimates. Our data indicate a moderate level of interannual variability in the ocean carbon sink (±0.12 Pg C yr−1, 1σ) from 1998 through 2011, mostly originating from the equatorial Pacific Ocean, and associated with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. Accounting for steady state riverine and Arctic Ocean carbon fluxes our estimate further implies a mean anthropogenic CO2 uptake of −1.99 ± 0.59 Pg C yr−1 over the analysis period. From this estimate plus the most recent estimates for fossil fuel emissions and atmospheric CO2 accumulation, we infer a mean global land sink of −2.82 ± 0.85 Pg C yr−1 over the 1998 through 2011 period with strong interannual variation.
Key Points
A new method permits us to upscale surface ocean pCO2 observationsWe find moderate variability in the global ocean carbon sinkENSO is the dominant mode driving the sink variability
Initially, children were thought to be spared from disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, a month into the epidemic, a novel multisystem inflammatory ...syndrome in children (MIS-C) emerged. Herein, we report on the immune profiles of nine MIS-C cases. All MIS-C patients had evidence of prior SARS-CoV-2 exposure, mounting an antibody response with intact neutralization capability. Cytokine profiling identified elevated signatures of inflammation (IL-18 and IL-6), lymphocytic and myeloid chemotaxis and activation (CCL3, CCL4, and CDCP1), and mucosal immune dysregulation (IL-17A, CCL20, and CCL28). Immunophenotyping of peripheral blood revealed reductions of non-classical monocytes, and subsets of NK and T lymphocytes, suggesting extravasation to affected tissues. Finally, profiling the autoantigen reactivity of MIS-C plasma revealed both known disease-associated autoantibodies (anti-La) and novel candidates that recognize endothelial, gastrointestinal, and immune-cell antigens. All patients were treated with anti-IL-6R antibody and/or IVIG, which led to rapid disease resolution.
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•The MIS-C anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody repertoire resembles a convalescent response•Cytokine profiling indicates myeloid cell chemotaxis and mucosal inflammation•Mass cytometry uncovers immune cell activation and egress to the periphery•MIS-C autoantibodies target organ systems central to MIS-C pathology
Insights into the cellular and serological immune dysfunction underlying MIS-C, a novel pediatric inflammatory syndrome associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection, reveal potential autoantibodies that may link organ systems relevant to pathology.
We investigate long‐term trends in dissolved oxygen in the North Atlantic from 1960 to 2009 on the basis of a newly assembled high‐quality dataset consisting of oxygen data from three different ...sources: CARINA, GLODAP and the World Ocean Database. Oxygen trends are determined along isopycnal surfaces for eight regions and five water masses using a general least‐squares linear regression method that accounts for temporal auto‐correlation. Our results show a significant decrease of oxygen in the Upper (UW), Mode (MW) and Intermediate (IW) waters in almost all regions over the last 5 decades. Over the same period, oxygen increased in the Lower Intermediate Water (LIW) and Labrador Sea Water (LSW) throughout the North Atlantic. The observed oxygen decreases in the MW and IW of the northern and eastern regions are largely driven by changes in circulation and/or ventilation, while changes in solubility are the main driver for the oxygen decrease in the UW and the increases in the LIW and LSW. From 1960 until 2009 the UW, MW, and IW horizons have lost a total of −57 ± 34 Tmol, while the LIW and LSW horizons have gained 46 ± 47 Tmol, integrating to a roughly constant oxygen inventory in the North Atlantic. Comparing our oxygen trends with those of the oceanic heat content, we find an O2 to heat change ratio of −3.6 ± 2.8 nmol J−1 for the UW, MW and IW, and a ratio of −2.8 ± 3.4 nmol J−1 for the LIW and LSW. These ratios are substantially larger than those expected from solubility alone.
Key Points
O2 changes significantly over the last five decades in the North Atlantic
The upper ocean has lost O2, while the lower waters have gained O2
O2/heat change ratio is larger than that expected from solubility
We report global long-term trends in surface ocean pH using a new pH data set computed by combining fCO2 observations from the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) version 2 with surface alkalinity ...estimates based on temperature and salinity. Trends were determined over the periods 1981–2011 and 1991–2011 for a set of 17 biomes using a weighted linear least squares method. We observe significant decreases in surface ocean pH in ~70% of all biomes and a mean rate of decrease of 0.0018 ± 0.0004 yr−1 for 1991–2011. We are not able to calculate a global trend for 1981–2011 because too few biomes have enough data for this. In half the biomes, the rate of change is commensurate with the trends expected based on the assumption that the surface ocean pH change is only driven by the surface ocean CO2 chemistry remaining in a transient equilibrium with the increase in atmospheric CO2. In the remaining biomes, deviations from such equilibrium may reflect that the trend of surface ocean fCO2 is not equal to that of the atmosphere, most notably in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, or may reflect changes in the oceanic buffer (Revelle) factor. We conclude that well-planned and long-term sustained observational networks are key to reliably document the ongoing and future changes in ocean carbon chemistry due to anthropogenic forcing.
Several methods have been developed to quantify the oceanic accumulation of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) in response to rising atmospheric CO2. Yet, we still lack a corresponding estimate of ...the changes in the total oceanic dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). In addition to the increase in anthropogenic CO2, changes in DIC also include alterations of natural CO2. Once integrated globally, changes in DIC reflect the net oceanic sink for atmospheric CO2, complementary to estimates of the air‐sea CO2 exchange based on surface measurements. Here, we extend the MOBO‐DIC machine learning approach by Keppler et al. (2020a, https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/metadata/landing-page/bin/iso?id=gov.noaa.nodc%3A0221526) to estimate global monthly fields of DIC at 1° resolution over the top 1,500 m from 2004 through 2019. We find that over these 16 years and extrapolated to cover the whole global ocean down to 4,000 m, the oceanic DIC pool increased close to linearly at an average rate of 3.2 ± 0.7 Pg C yr−1. This trend is statistically indistinguishable from current estimates of the oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO2 over the same period. Thus, our study implies no detectable net loss or gain of natural CO2 by the ocean, albeit the large uncertainties could be masking it. Our reconstructions suggest substantial internal redistributions of natural oceanic CO2, with a shift from the midlatitudes to the tropics and from the surface to below ∼200 m. Such redistributions correspond with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. The interannual variability of DIC is strongest in the tropical Western Pacific, consistent with the El Nin∼ $\tilde{n}$o Southern Oscillation.
Plain Language Summary
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, increase the amount of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. A large portion of this additional CO2 is being taken up by the ocean. Several methods have been developed to quantify how much of this anthropogenic CO2 is taken up by the ocean. However, in addition to the anthropogenic CO2, there can also be changes in the naturally occurring CO2 in the ocean. Both the anthropogenic and the natural changes would be reflected in changes of the total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) stored in the ocean. Here, we extend a machine learning approach to estimate global monthly fields of DIC from 2004 through 2019. We find that over these 16 years, the oceanic DIC pool in the upper 4,000 m increased at an average rate of 3.2 ± 0.7 Pg C/yr. This trend is statistically indistinguishable from current estimates of the oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO2 over the same period. Thus, our study implies no detectable net loss or gain of natural CO2 by the ocean, albeit the large uncertainties could be masking it. Our reconstructions suggest substantial internal redistributions of natural oceanic CO2.
Key Points
From 2004 through 2019, the global oceanic dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) pool increased at an average rate of 3.2 ± 0.7 Pg C yr−1
Most of this increase is associated with the uptake of anthropogenic CO2, while natural CO2 is mostly redistributed within the ocean
The interannual variability of DIC is largest in the tropical Pacific Ocean
Although it is well established that the large-scale wind drives much of the world's ocean circulation, the contribution of the wind energy input at mesoscales (10-200 km) remains poorly known. Here ...we use regional simulations with a coupled high-resolution atmosphere-ocean model of the South Atlantic, to show that mesoscale ocean features and, in particular, eddies can be energized by their thermodynamic interactions with the atmosphere. Owing to their sea-surface temperature anomalies affecting the wind field above them, the oceanic eddies in the presence of a large-scale wind gradient provide a mesoscale conduit for the transfer of energy into the ocean. Our simulations show that this pathway is responsible for up to 10% of the kinetic energy of the oceanic mesoscale eddy field in the South Atlantic. The conditions for this pathway to inject energy directly into the mesoscale prevail over much of the Southern Ocean north of the Polar Front.
The global ocean is a significant sink for anthropogenic carbon (Cant), absorbing roughly a third of human CO2 emitted over the industrial period. Robust estimates of the magnitude and variability of ...the storage and distribution of Cant in the ocean are therefore important for understanding the human impact on climate. In this synthesis we review observational and model-based estimates of the storage and transport of Cant in the ocean. We pay particular attention to the uncertainties and potential biases inherent in different inference schemes. On a global scale, three data-based estimates of the distribution and inventory of Cant are now available. While the inventories are found to agree within their uncertainty, there are considerable differences in the spatial distribution. We also present a review of the progress made in the application of inverse and data assimilation techniques which combine ocean interior estimates of Cant with numerical ocean circulation models. Such methods are especially useful for estimating the air–sea flux and interior transport of Cant, quantities that are otherwise difficult to observe directly. However, the results are found to be highly dependent on modeled circulation, with the spread due to different ocean models at least as large as that from the different observational methods used to estimate Cant. Our review also highlights the importance of repeat measurements of hydrographic and biogeochemical parameters to estimate the storage of Cant on decadal timescales in the presence of the variability in circulation that is neglected by other approaches. Data-based Cant estimates provide important constraints on forward ocean models, which exhibit both broad similarities and regional errors relative to the observational fields. A compilation of inventories of Cant gives us a "best" estimate of the global ocean inventory of anthropogenic carbon in 2010 of 155 ± 31 PgC (±20% uncertainty). This estimate includes a broad range of values, suggesting that a combination of approaches is necessary in order to achieve a robust quantification of the ocean sink of anthropogenic CO2.
Using measurements of the surface-ocean CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) and 14 different pCO2 mapping methods recently collated by the Surface Ocean pCO2 Mapping intercomparison (SOCOM) initiative, ...variations in regional and global sea–air CO2 fluxes are investigated. Though the available mapping methods use widely different approaches, we find relatively consistent estimates of regional pCO2 seasonality, in line with previous estimates. In terms of interannual variability (IAV), all mapping methods estimate the largest variations to occur in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Despite considerable spread in the detailed variations, mapping methods that fit the data more closely also tend to agree more closely with each other in regional averages. Encouragingly, this includes mapping methods belonging to complementary types – taking variability either directly from the pCO2 data or indirectly from driver data via regression. From a weighted ensemble average, we find an IAV amplitude of the global sea–air CO2 flux of 0.31 PgC yr-1 (standard deviation over 1992–2009), which is larger than simulated by biogeochemical process models. From a decadal perspective, the global ocean CO2 uptake is estimated to have gradually increased since about 2000, with little decadal change prior to that. The weighted mean net global ocean CO2 sink estimated by the SOCOM ensemble is -1.75 PgC yr-1 (1992–2009), consistent within uncertainties with estimates from ocean-interior carbon data or atmospheric oxygen trends.
IntroductionRecent studies is showed that adults with Cerebral Palsy (CP) have an elevated prevalence of mental health disorders, especially increased risk of depression or anxiety. Perceptions of ...the CP condition, and coping behaviors often affect the impact of the condition on the child with CP and his/her family.Several studies have affirmed that some factors such as interpersonal relationships, sexuality, and physical conditions are also crucial to a higher QoL in the persons with CP.A Danish study showed that 55% of Danish adults with CP (aged 29–35 years) were unemployed, did not cohabit with a partner and did not have children, compared with only 4% of the control population.Objectivesto show a case of a 50-year-old male person with cerebral palsyMethodscase studyThe three functional classifications (GMFCS-E&R, CFCS and MACS) is used to provide functional description together with The Quality-of-Life Scale (QOLS), World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 – (WHODAS-interview), Flourishing Scale Self-perceived success (FS), Depression Anxiety Stress Scales - 10 (DASS-10), the Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire (Brief IPQ)Resultsmale, 50 årQuality of Life score: 90Flourishing scale (FS): 47Depression Anxiety Stress Scales: 9the Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire (Brief IPQ):45Communication issues: CFCS (Communication Function Classification System): Level IHaving a Partner: Domestic partner- reside together with partner, don’t have children. having af parents and brothers that are a great supportType of Housing: Independent living (own housing, 1 hour of assistance per week)Mobility issues: GMFCS (Gross Motor Function Classification System): Level II, MACS (Manual Ability Classification System): Level IConclusionsCase is showing 50 years old male with cerebral palsy who has not an intellectual disability and who has a high life quality, high self-perceived success, moderate anxiety and high perception of illness. Social, family and romantic relationships together with leisure time and sustainable physical activity and exercise was emphasized.Disclosure of InterestNone Declared
The Atlantic Ocean is one of the most important sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), but this sink has been shown to vary substantially in time. Here we use surface ocean CO2 observations to ...estimate this sink and the temporal variability from 1998 through 2007 in the Atlantic Ocean. We benefit from (i) a continuous improvement of the observations, i.e. the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) v1.5 database and (ii) a newly developed technique to interpolate the observations in space and time. In particular, we use a two-step neural network approach to reconstruct basin-wide monthly maps of the sea surface partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) at a resolution of 1° × 1°. From those, we compute the air–sea CO2 flux maps using a standard gas exchange parameterization and high-resolution wind speeds. The neural networks fit the observed pCO2 data with a root mean square error (RMSE) of about 10 μatm and with almost no bias. A check against independent time-series data and new data from SOCAT v2 reveals a larger RMSE of 22.8 μatm for the entire Atlantic Ocean, which decreases to 16.3 μatm for data south of 40° N. We estimate a decadal mean uptake flux of −0.45 ± 0.15 Pg C yr−1 for the Atlantic between 44° S and 79° N, representing the sum of a strong uptake north of 18° N (−0.39 ± 0.10 Pg C yr−1), outgassing in the tropics (18° S–18° N, 0.11 ± 0.07 Pg C yr−1), and uptake in the subtropical/temperate South Atlantic south of 18° S (−0.16 ± 0.06 Pg C yr−1), consistent with recent studies. The strongest seasonal variability of the CO2 flux occurs in the temperature-driven subtropical North Atlantic, with uptake in winter and outgassing in summer. The seasonal cycle is antiphased in the subpolar latitudes relative to the subtropics largely as a result of the biologically driven winter-to-summer drawdown of CO2. Over the 10 yr analysis period (1998 through 2007), sea surface pCO2 increased faster than that of the atmosphere in large areas poleward of 40° N, while in other regions of the North Atlantic the sea surface pCO2 increased at a slower rate, resulting in a barely changing Atlantic carbon sink north of the Equator (−0.01 ± 0.02 Pg C yr−1 decade−1). Surface ocean pCO2 increased at a slower rate relative to atmospheric CO2 over most of the Atlantic south of the Equator, leading to a substantial trend toward a stronger CO2 sink for the entire South Atlantic (−0.14 ± 0.02 Pg C yr−1 decade−1). In contrast to the 10 yr trends, the Atlantic Ocean carbon sink varies relatively little on inter-annual timescales (±0.04 Pg C yr−1; 1 σ).
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