How words are associated within the linguistic environment conveys semantic content; however, different contexts induce different linguistic patterns. For instance, it is well known that adults speak ...differently to children than to other adults. We present results from a new word association study in which adult participants were instructed to produce either unconstrained or child-oriented responses to each cue, where cues included 672 nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other word forms from the McArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI; Fenson et al.,
2006
). Child-oriented responses consisted of higher frequency words with fewer letters, earlier ages of acquisition, and higher contextual diversity. Furthermore, the correlations among the responses generated for each pair of cues differed between unconstrained (adult-oriented) and child-oriented responses, suggesting that child-oriented associations imply different semantic structure. A comparison of growth models guided by a semantic network structure revealed that child-oriented associations are more predictive of early lexical growth. Additionally, relative to a growth model based on a corpus of naturalistic child-directed speech, the child-oriented associations explain added unique variance to lexical growth. Thus, these new child-oriented word association norms provide novel insight into the semantic context of young children and early lexical development.
This study compares the lexical composition of 118 children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) aged 12 to 84 months with 4626 vocabulary-matched typically developing toddlers with and without ...language delay, aged 8 to 30 months. Children with ASD and late talkers showed a weaker noun bias. Additionally, differences were identified in the proportion of nouns and verbs, and in the semantic categories of animals, toys, household items and vehicles. Most differences appear to reflect the extent of the age differences between the groups. However, children with ASD produced fewer high-social verbs than typical talkers and late talkers, a difference that might be associated with ASD features. In sum, our findings identified areas of overlap and distinction across the developing lexical profiles.
Children with autism spectrum disorder often have significant language delays. But do they learn language differently than neurotypical toddlers? We compared the lexical skills of 64 preverbal and ...minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder to 461 vocabulary-size-matched typically developing toddlers. We also examined social features of verb knowledge using a novel collection of social ratings. Children with autism spectrum disorder produced proportionally more verbs than typically developing toddlers. Children with autism spectrum disorder produced proportionally more action and food words, while typically developing toddlers produced proportionally more animal, people words, and animal sounds and sound effects. Children with autism spectrum disorder also produced “mommy” and “daddy” at lower rates. We discuss how these differences may reflect an association between lexical development and weaknesses in social communication.
Lay abstract
Although preverbal and minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder represent a significant portion of the autism spectrum disorder population, we have a limited understanding of and characterization of them. Although it is a given that their lexical profiles contain fewer words, it is important to determine whether (a) the words preverbal and minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder produce are similar to the first words typically developing children produce or (b) there are unique features of the limited words that preverbal and minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder produce. The current study compared the early word profiles of preverbal and minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder to vocabulary-matched typically developing toddlers. Children with autism spectrum disorder produced proportionally more verbs than typically developing toddlers. Also, children with autism spectrum disorder produced proportionally more action and food words, while typically developing toddlers produced proportionally more animal words, animal sounds and sound effects, and people words. Children with autism spectrum disorder also produced “mommy” and “daddy” at lower rates. Our findings identified several areas of overlap in early word learning; however, our findings also point to differences that may be connected to core weaknesses in social communication (i.e. people words). The findings highlight words and categories that could serve as useful targets for communication intervention with preverbal and minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder.
Background and aims
Males with fragile X syndrome display many behavioral features of autism spectrum disorder. Despite this overlap, our understanding of autism spectrum disorder symptoms and ...severity in fragile X syndrome is limited due to variation in assessment methods in the literature. Furthermore, the relationship between autism spectrum disorder symptoms and child characteristics, like age, language, and cognitive abilities, are not well understood in individuals with fragile X syndrome. Therefore, the first research aim was to compare the rates of autism spectrum disorder classifications from three commonly reported autism spectrum disorder assessments in the literature. Our second research aim was to examine the relationship between autism spectrum disorder characteristics and other child characteristics.
Methods
The present study compared autism spectrum disorder classifications and symptoms using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Autism Diagnostic Interview, Revised, and Childhood Autism Rating Scale, second edition in a sample of 33 school-age and adolescent boys with fragile X syndrome. In addition, the participants completed nonverbal IQ testing, expressive vocabulary and grammar tests, and a conversation language sample.
Results
The majority of the participants met criteria for autism spectrum disorder on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (96.97%) and Autism Diagnostic Interview, Revised (90.91%), while only half met criteria for autism spectrum disorder on the Childhood Autism Rating Scale, second edition. Sixteen boys (48.48%) met criteria for autism spectrum disorder on all three measures, and all participants met criteria for autism spectrum disorder on at least one measure. Expressive vocabulary accounted for a unique amount of variance in Childhood Autism Rating Scale, second edition and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule scores. Additionally, grammatical complexity accounted for a unique amount of variance in Childhood Autism Rating Scale, second edition scores. None of the child variables accounted for the variance found in Autism Diagnostic Interview, Revised scores. Although nonverbal IQ scores did not account for a significant amount of variance on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Autism Diagnostic Interview, Revised, and Childhood Autism Rating Scale, Second Edition, boys who met criteria for autism spectrum disorder on all three measures had lower nonverbal IQ compared to the boys who did not. Additionally, mean length of utterance and expressive vocabulary scores were lower in the boys who met criteria for autism spectrum disorder on all three measures than those who did not.
Conclusions
Our findings identify areas of overlap and difference in the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Autism Diagnostic Interview, Revised, and Childhood Autism Rating Scale, second edition when used with males with fragile X syndrome. Variation in assessments may differentially identify the phenotypic behaviors of boys with fragile X syndrome that lead to a co-diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder, which contributes to the variation in reported co-morbidity of fragile X syndrome and autism spectrum disorder. Also, expressive language abilities, especially expressive vocabulary, are associated with autism spectrum disorder symptomatology.
Implications: When interpreting comorbid fragile X syndrome and autism spectrum disorder rates in the literature, it is important to consider the assessment tool that was used. Although the assessments that we used in the present study yielded scores that were highly correlated (i.e. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule and Childhood Autism Rating Scale, second edition), their categorical classifications did not align perfectly. Our findings also highlight the importance of considering language skills when assessing autism spectrum disorder severity in fragile X syndrome.
Background and aims
Understanding the unique expressive language profiles of children with phenotypically similar, but distinct neurodevelopmental disorders, such as idiopathic autism spectrum ...disorder and fragile X syndrome with a co-diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (fragile X syndrome + autism spectrum disorder), has both clinical and theoretical implications. However, comparative studies of these two clinical groups have been limited, and results have been inconsistent, partially as a result of different assessment methods being utilized. Thus, the current study compared the expressive language profiles of boys with idiopathic autism spectrum disorder and boys with fragile X syndrome + autism spectrum disorder and examined whether a similar linguistic profile emerged across different language sampling contexts: a semi-structured conversation and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule.
Methods
Eighteen boys with autism spectrum disorder (Mage = 13.25 years) and 19 boys with fragile X syndrome + autism spectrum disorder (Mage = 12.19 years), matched on autism spectrum disorder symptom severity and similar in terms of chronological age and mean length of utterance, participated in this study. Boys produced two language samples: one semi-structured conversation and one taken from the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule. Language samples were coded for talkativeness, lexical diversity, mean length of utterance, intelligibility, and repetitive or perseverative language.
Results
Analyses revealed that boys with autism spectrum disorder produced language samples that were more lexically diverse and intelligible, and that included less topic perseveration compared to boys with fragile X syndrome + autism spectrum disorder. With regards to sampling context, boys in both groups were more talkative and produced longer and more intelligible utterances in their conversation sample compared to their Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule sample. However, boys with autism spectrum disorder and fragile X syndrome + autism spectrum disorder used a higher proportion of topic perseveration during the conversation sample.
Conclusions
Overall, we found similarities as well as distinctions in the expressive language profiles of boys with fragile X syndrome + autism spectrum disorder and boys with idiopathic autism spectrum disorder. Moreover, the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule sample elicited a relatively different language profile than the conversation sample for boys in both groups.
Implications
These findings help to further elucidate the unique language phenotypes of boys with idiopathic autism spectrum disorder and boys with fragile X syndrome + autism spectrum disorder. Moreover, our findings indicate that multiple language samples may be needed to obtain a comprehensive account of a child’s expressive language ability.
Background and Aims
Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) benefit from word learning procedures that include a mix of immediate retrieval and spaced retrieval trials. In this study, we ...examine the relative contribution of these two types of retrieval.
Methods
We examine data from
Haebig et al. (2019) in their study that compared an immediate retrieval condition and a condition of spaced retrieval that also included immediate retrieval trials. Participants were 4- and 5-year old children with DLD and same-age peers with typical language development. Each child learned novel (made-up) words referring to unusual plants and animals in both conditions. We examined the phonetic accuracy of the novel words used during the final learning trial and during recall tests 5 min and 1 week after learning.
Results
On the final learning trial, the children were more phonetically accurate in using the novel words learned in the immediate retrieval condition. However, recall tests after the learning trials revealed a decrease in accuracy, especially for the children with DLD. After one week, accuracy was much lower for words in the immediate retrieval condition than for words in the mixed spaced-plus-immediate retrieval condition. For words learned in the mixed spaced-plus-immediate retrieval condition, accuracy was very stable across time for both groups.
Conclusions
Immediate retrieval boosts the phonetic accuracy of new words in the short term but spaced retrieval promotes stability and increases the likelihood that short-term gains are maintained.
Implications: When novel word learning is assessed at the level of phonetic accuracy, children with DLD can show declines over time not characteristic of children with typical language development. Spaced retrieval procedures augmented by immediate retrieval opportunities during learning appear to prevent such declines, leading to longer-lasting gains.
Many children with developmental language disorders (DLD) have well-documented weaknesses in vocabulary. In recent years, investigators have explored the nature of these weaknesses through the use of ...novel word learning paradigms. These studies have begun to uncover specific areas of difficulty and have provided hints about possible intervention strategies that might help these children learn words more accurately and efficiently. Among the studies of this type are those that incorporate repeated spaced retrieval activities in the learning procedures.
In this study, we examined the data from four of these studies that employed the same types of participants (4- and 5-year-old children with DLD and same-age children with typical language development), research design, and outcome measures. The studies differed primarily in the type of learning condition that was being compared to a spaced retrieval condition. A mixed-effects modeling framework was used, enabling the data from the four studies and different outcome measures to be aggregated.
Across the studies, more words in the repeated spaced retrieval condition were recalled than those in the comparison conditions. This was true regardless of outcome measure. Children with typical language development recalled more words than the children with DLD. Both groups benefited from spaced retrieval, though effects were larger for the group with DLD. Children recalled words as accurately 1 week after learning as they did at the 5-min mark; the two groups were essentially identical in this respect.
Overall, the findings support the continued refinement of these types of repeated spaced retrieval procedures, as they may have potential to serve as effective approaches to intervention.
Previous work has noted that some children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display weaknesses in receptive vocabulary relative to expressive vocabulary abilities. The current study extended ...previous work by examining the receptive-expressive vocabulary profile in boys with idiopathic ASD and boys with concomitant ASD and fragile X syndrome (ASD + FXS). On average, boys with ASD + FXS did not display the same atypical receptive-expressive profile as boys with idiopathic ASD. Notably, there was variation in vocabulary abilities and profiles in both groups. Although we did not identify predictors of receptive-expressive differences, we demonstrated that nonverbal IQ and expressive vocabulary positively predicted concurrent receptive vocabulary knowledge and receptive vocabulary predicted expressive vocabulary. We discuss areas of overlap and divergence in subgroups of ASD.
A substantial amount of work has examined language abilities in young children with specific language impairment (SLI); however, our understanding of the developmental trajectory of language ...impairment is limited. Along with studying the behavioral changes that occur across development, it is important to examine the neural indices of language processing for children with different language trajectories. The current study sought to examine behavioral and neural bases of language processing in adolescents showing three different trajectories: those with normal language development (NL), those exhibiting persistent SLI (SLI-Persistent), and those with a history of SLI who appear to have recovered (SLI-Recovered).
Through a sentence judgment task, we examined semantic and syntactic processing. Adolescents judged whether or not each sentence was semantically and syntactically correct. Stimuli consisted of naturally spoken sentences that were either correct, contained a semantic verb error, or contained a syntactic verb agreement error. Verb agreement errors consisted of omission and commission violations of the third-person singular -
. Behavioral button-press responses and electroencephalographic recordings were collected. Behavioral judgments and mean amplitude of the N400 and P600 components were examined.
Adolescents in the SLI-Persistent group had lower sentence judgment accuracy overall, relative to the NL and SLI-Recovered groups. Accuracy in judging omission and commission syntactic errors were marginally different, with marginally lower accuracy for commission errors. All groups demonstrated an N400 component elicited by semantic violations. However, adolescents in the SLI-Persistent group demonstrated a less robust P600 component for syntactic violations. Furthermore, adolescents in the SLI-Recovered group exhibited a similar neural profile to the NL group for the semantic and syntactic omission violations. However, a unique profile with initial negativity was observed in the SLI-Recovered group in the commission violation condition.
Adolescents with persistent language impairment continue to demonstrate delays in language processing at the behavioral and neural levels. Conversely, the adolescents in the SLI-Recovered group appear to have made gains in language processing skills to overcome their initial impairments. However, our findings suggest that the adolescents in the SLI-Recovered group may have compensatory processing strategies for some aspects of language, as evidenced by a unique event-related potential profile.
This study examined the longitudinal associations between parent verbal responsiveness and language 3 years later in 34 toddlers with a diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder. Parent–child play ...samples were coded for child engagement and communication acts and for parent verbal responsiveness. Measures of responsive verbal behaviors were used to predict language gain scores 3 years later. Parent directives for language that followed into the child’s focus of attention were predictive of child receptive language gains. Parent comments that followed into the child’s focus of attention yielded differential effects depending on initial levels of child language. Children who were minimally verbal at age 2½ benefited from parent comments that followed into the their focus of attention, whereas children who were verbally fluent did not demonstrate such a benefit.
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