Skeletal muscle undergoes remarkable adaptations in response to chronic decreases in contractile activity, such as a loss of muscle mass, decreases in both mitochondrial content and function, as well ...as the activation of apoptosis. Although these adaptations are well known, questions remain regarding the signaling pathways that mediated these changes. Autophagy is an organelle turnover pathway that could contribute to these adaptations. The purpose of this study was to determine whether denervation-induced muscle disuse would result in the activation of autophagy gene expression in both wild-type (WT) and Bax/Bak double knockout (DKO) animals, which display an attenuated apoptotic response. Denervation caused a reduction in muscle mass for WT and DKO animals; however, there was a 40% attenuation in muscle atrophy in DKO animals. Mitochondrial state 3 respiration was significantly reduced, and reactive oxygen species production was increased by two- to threefold in both WT and DKO animals. Apoptotic markers, including cytosolic AIF and DNA fragmentation, were elevated in WT, but not in DKO animals following denervation. Autophagy proteins including LC3II, ULK1, ATG7, p62, and Beclin1 were increased similarly following denervation for both WT and DKO. Interestingly, denervation markedly increased the localization of LC3II to subsarcolemmal mitochondria, and this was more pronounced in the DKO animals. Thus denervation-induced muscle disuse activates both apoptotic and autophagic signaling pathways in muscle, and autophagic protein expression does not exhibit a compensatory increase in the presence of attenuated apoptosis. However, the absence of Bax and Bak may represent a potential signal to trigger mitophagy in muscle.
1 School of Kinesiology and Health Science and 2 Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Submitted 11 July 2006
; accepted in final form 14 November 2006
Chronic muscle ...disuse induced by denervation reduces mitochondrial content and produces muscle atrophy. To investigate the molecular mechanisms responsible for these adaptations, we assessed 1 ) mitochondrial biogenesis- and apoptosis-related proteins and 2 ) apoptotic susceptibility and cell death following denervation. Rats were subjected to 5, 7, 14, 21, or 42 days of unilateral denervation of the sciatic or peroneal nerve. Muscle mass and mitochondrial content were reduced by 4065% after 21 and 42 days of denervation. Denervation-induced decrements in mitochondrial content occurred along with 60% and 70% reductions in transcription factor A (Tfam) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- coactivator (PGC)-1 , respectively. After 42 days of denervation, Bax was elevated by 115% and Bcl-2 was decreased by 89%, producing a 16-fold increase in the Bax-to-Bcl-2 ratio. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production was markedly elevated by 5- to 7.5-fold in subsarcolemmal mitochondria after 7, 14, and 21 days of denervation, whereas reactive oxygen species production in intermyofibrillar (IMF) mitochondria was reduced by 4050%. Subsarcolemmal and IMF mitochondrial levels of MnSOD were also reduced by 4050% after 1421 days of denervation. The maximal rate of IMF mitochondrial pore opening ( V max ) was elevated by 2535%, and time to V max was reduced by 2025% after 14 and 21 days, indicating increased apoptotic susceptibility. Myonuclear decay, assessed by DNA fragmentation, was elevated at 721 days of denervation. Our data indicate that PGC-1 and Tfam are important factors that likely contribute to the reduced mitochondrial content after chronic disuse. In addition, our results illustrate that, despite the reduced mitochondrial content, denervated muscle has greater mitochondrial apoptotic susceptibility, which coincided with elevated apoptosis, and these processes may contribute to denervation-induced muscle atrophy.
mitochondrial biogenesis; muscle disuse; reactive oxygen species; mitochondrial respiration; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- coactivator-1
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: D. A. Hood, School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York Univ., Toronto, ON, Canada M3J 1P3 (e-mail: dhood{at}yorku.ca )
1 School of Kinesiology and Health Science, ;
2 Department of Biology, and ;
3 the Muscle Health Research Centre, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Submitted 5 November 2008
; accepted in ...final form 28 September 2009
Sirt1 is a NAD + -dependent histone deacetylase that interacts with the regulatory protein of mitochondrial biogenesis PGC-1 and is sensitive to metabolic alterations. We assessed whether a strict relationship between the expression of Sirt1, mitochondrial proteins, and PGC-1 existed across tissues possessing a wide range of oxidative capabilities, as well as in skeletal muscle subject to chronic use (voluntary wheel running or electrical stimulation for 7 days, 10 Hz; 3 h/day) or disuse (denervation for up to 21 days) in which organelle biogenesis is altered. PGC-1 levels were not closely associated with the expression of Sirt1, measured using immunoblotting or via enzymatic deacetylase activity. The mitochondrial protein cytochrome c increased by 70–90% in soleus and plantaris muscles of running animals, whereas Sirt1 activity remained unchanged. In chronically stimulated muscle, cytochrome c was increased by 30% compared with nonstimulated muscle, whereas Sirt1 activity was increased modestly by 20–25%. In contrast, in denervated muscle, these markers of mitochondrial content were decreased by 30–50% compared with the control muscle, whereas Sirt1 activity was increased by 75–80%. Our data suggest that Sirt1 and PGC-1 expression are independently regulated and that, although Sirt1 activity may be involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, its expression is not closely correlated to changes in mitochondrial proteins during conditions of chronic muscle use and disuse.
mitochondrial biogenesis; muscle mass; exercise; chronic stimulation
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: D. A. Hood, School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York Univ., 4700 Keele St., Toronto, Ontario, M3J 1P3, Canada (e-mail: dhood{at}yorku.ca ).
School of Kinesiology and Health Science and Muscle Health Research Centre, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Submitted 5 July 2007
; accepted in final form 23 April 2008
Skeletal muscle is ...highly adaptable in response to increases and decreases in contractile activity. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the preconditioning of skeletal muscle has a protective effect against subsequent denervation-induced apoptotic protein expression. To investigate this, we chronically stimulated the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles for 7 days (10 Hz, 3 h/day) before 7 days of denervation. Denervation reduced total cytochrome- c oxidase activity by 39%, which was likely a consequence of a decrease in subsarcolemmal (SS) mitochondria. This decrease in the SS subfraction was prevented by prior chronic stimulation and, as a result, maintained total mitochondrial content at control levels. The expression of Bax was elevated 2.2-fold by denervation, and prior chronic stimulation did not attenuate this increase. This produced a increase in the Bax-to-Bcl-2 ratio, indicating greater muscle apoptotic susceptibility. Denervation also decreased state 3 respiration in SS and intermyofibrillar mitochondria and elevated state 4 reactive oxygen species production within both mitochondrial subfractions. These changes were not prevented by prior chronic stimulation. Furthermore, the antioxidant protein MnSOD was also reduced by denervation, whereas Beclin-1 was markedly elevated. This suggests that autophagic cell death could also play a significant part in denervation-induced muscle atrophy. Thus, despite prior chronic stimulation, denervation increases the apoptotic susceptibility of skeletal muscle by altering the Bax-to-Bcl-2 ratio, by increasing reactive oxygen species production, and by reducing the expression of MnSOD. Whether a more extensive stimulation paradigm would be more effective in attenuating apoptosis before muscle disuse remains to be determined.
mitochondrial biogenesis; muscle atrophy; reactive oxygen species; autophagy; protein degradation
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: D. A. Hood, School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York Univ., Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada (e-mail: dhood{at}yorku.ca )
Cardiolipin (CL) is a phospholipid that maintains the integrity of mitochondrial membranes. We previously demonstrated that CL content increases with chronic muscle use, and decreases with ...denervation-induced disuse. To investigate the underlying mechanisms, we measured the mRNA expression of 1) CL synthesis enzymes cardiolipin synthase (CLS) and CTP:PA-cytidylyltransferase-1 (CDS-1); 2) remodeling enzymes tafazzin and acyl-CoA:lysocardiolipin acyltransferase-1 (ALCAT1); and 3) outer membrane CL enzymes, mitochondrial phospholipase D and phospholipid scramblase 3 (Plscr3), during chronic contractile activity (CCA)-induced mitochondrial biogenesis and denervation. With CCA, CDS-1 expression increased by 128%, parelleling CL levels. Surprisingly, denervation also led to large increases in CDS-1 and CLS, despite a decrease in mitochondria, possibly due to a compensatory mechanism to restore lost CL. ALCAT1 decreased by 32% with CCA, but increased by 290% following denervation, indicating that both CCA and denervation alter CL remodeling. CCA and denervation also elicited 60-90% increases in Plscr3, likely to facilitate CL movement to the outer membrane. The expression of these genes was not affected by aging, but changes due to CCA and denervation were attenuated compared with young animals. The absence of PPARγ coactivator-1α in knockout animals led to a decrease in CDS-1 and an increase in ALCAT1 mRNA levels, implicating PGC-1α in regulating both CL synthesis and remodeling. These data suggest that chronic muscle use and disuse modify the expression of mRNAs encoding CL metabolism enzymes. Our data also illustrate, for the first time, that PPARγ coactivator-1α regulates the CL metabolism pathway in muscle.
Alterations in contractile activity influence the intracellular homeostasis of muscle which results in adaptations in the performance and the phenotype of this tissue. Denervation is an effective ...disuse model which functions to change the intracellular environment of muscle leading to a rapid loss in mass, a decrease in mitochondrial content, and an elevation in both pro-apoptotic protein expression and myonuclear apoptosis. Recent investigations have shown that alternative degradation pathways such as autophagy are activated in conjunction with apoptosis during chronic muscle disuse. We have previously shown that 7 days of muscle disuse increases the expression of Beclin 1. Furthermore, we have also detected a significant increase in the expression of LC3-II, a known component of autophagy. In addition to its upregulation, denervation appears to induce the translocation of LC3-II to mitochondrial membranes. Collectively, these increases in protein expression suggest that autophagy signaling is upregulated in response to denervation, and that these pathways may preferentially target mitochondria for degradation in skeletal muscle.
The function Bax and/or Bak in constituting a gateway for mitochondrial apoptosis in response to apoptotic stimuli has been unequivocally demonstrated. However, recent work has suggested that Bax/Bak ...may have unrecognized nonapoptotic functions related to mitochondrial function in nonstressful environments. Wild-type (WT) and Bax/Bak double knockout (DKO) mice were used to determine alternative roles for Bax and Bak in mitochondrial morphology and protein import in skeletal muscle. The absence of Bax and/or Bak altered mitochondrial dynamics by regulating protein components of the organelle fission and fusion machinery. Moreover, DKO mice exhibited defective mitochondrial protein import, both into the matrix and outer membrane compartments, which was consistent with our observations of impaired membrane potential and attenuated expression of protein import machinery (PIM) components in intermyofibrillar mitochondria. Furthermore, the cytosolic chaperones heat-shock protein 90 (Hsp90) and binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) were markedly increased with the deletion of Bax/Bak, indicating that the cytosolic environment related to protein folding may be changed in DKO mice. Interestingly, endurance training fully restored the deficiency of protein import in DKO mice, likely via the upregulation of PIM components and through improved cytosolic chaperone protein expression. Thus our results emphasize novel roles for Bax and/or Bak in mitochondrial function and provide evidence, for the first time, of a curative function of exercise training in ameliorating a condition of defective mitochondrial protein import.
Purpose: To investigate the correlation of a structural measure of the macular area (optical coherence tomography (OCT)) with two functional measures (10-2 Humphrey visual field (HVF) and multifocal ...visual evoked potential (mfVEP)) of macular function. Methods: 55 eyes with open-angle glaucoma were enrolled. The 10-2 HVF was defined as abnormal if clusters of ⩾3 points with p<5%, one of which had p<1%, were present. The mfVEP was abnormal if probability plots had ⩾2 adjacent points with p<1%, or ⩾3 adjacent points with p<5% and at least one of these points with p<1%. Two criteria were used for the macular OCT: (I) ⩾2 sectors with p<5% or 1 sector with p<1% and (II) 1 sector with p<5%. Results: 54 of the 55 eyes showed an abnormal 10-2 HVF and 50 had central mfVEP defects. The two OCT criteria resulted in sensitivities of 85% and 91%. When both functional tests showed a defect (in 49 eyes), the OCT was abnormal in 45. For the OCT the outer and inner inferior regions were the most likely to be abnormal, and both functional techniques were most abnormal in the superior hemifield. Conclusions: Good agreement exists between macular thickness and functional defects in patients with glaucoma. Study of the macular region may provide a quantitative measure for disease staging and monitoring.
Aim: To assess the accuracy of optical coherence tomography (OCT) in detecting damage to a hemifield, patients with hemifield defects confirmed on both static automated perimetry (SAP) and multifocal ...visual evoked potentials (mfVEP) were studied. Methods: Eyes of 40 patients with concomitant SAP and mfVEP glaucomatous loss and 25 controls underwent OCT retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL), mfVEP and 24-2 SAP tests. For the mfVEP and 24-2 SAP, a hemifield was defined as abnormal based upon cluster criteria. On OCT, a hemifield was considered abnormal if one of the five clock hour sectors (3 and 9 o’clock excluded) was at <1% (red) or two were at <5% (yellow). Results: Seventy seven (43%) of the hemifields were abnormal on both mfVEP and SAP tests. The OCT was abnormal for 73 (95%) of these. Only 1 (1%) of the 100 hemifields of the controls was abnormal on OCT. Sensitivity/specificity (one eye per person) was 95/98%. Conclusions: The OCT RNFL test accurately detects abnormal hemifields confirmed on both subjective and objective functional tests. Identifying abnormal hemifields with a criterion of 1 red (1%) or 2 yellow (5%) clock hours may prove useful in clinical practice.
Apoptosis is an essential process that plays a critical role in both tissue development and maintenance. Apoptosis has been shown to be involved in skeletal muscle atrophy resulting from chronic ...muscular disuse, sarcopenia, and mitochondrial myopathies. Exercise may attenuate some of the proapoptotic adaptations that occur during these conditions. This review will focus on the factors influencing mitochondrially mediated apoptosis in skeletal muscle.
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