•We provide comprehensive data of SOC for managed land use in Austria.•SOC densities are highest in peatlands forests, and partially in grasslands.•Cropland soils are already managed to conserve the ...SOC stock.•The data serve as reference for the effect of future land management concepts.•Efforts to increase the SOC stocks are hampered by soil sealing.
We compiled information from different sources in order to establish a comprehensive map of the stock of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the upper 30 cm under different forms of land use for Austria. The information serves as a baseline for the evaluation of the potential of climate-change mitigation measures. SOC sequestration plays an important role in the discussion of terrestrial carbon (C) sinks and the size of the SOC pool is one of several quality measures for crop production and the national and regional food security. The baseline serves also for the evaluation of the effectiveness of adaptive land management in order to cope with climate change. Austrian croplands, grasslands, forests, and settlements contain 300 Mt SOC. Peatlands have the highest SOC density (220 t C/ha), yet cover only about 2% of the country. Forest soils store 106 t C/ha and comprise the largest pool due to the coverage of more than 4 Mha (48% of the country). Intensively and extensively managed grasslands cover 0.8 Mha (10%) and contain between 91 and 113 t C/ha, and cropland on 1.28 Mha (15%) hold on average 62 t C/ha. Due to the geographic heterogeneity of Austria with respect to climatic conditions, geology and soils, and topography the regional differences in SOC stocks are large. Measures to increase the SOC stock in cropland have been applied for 25 years within agri-environmental and climate-smart strategies. An increase of the total SOC pool is expected due to the afforestation and reforestation of marginal agricultural land and to a smaller extent due to the restoration of peatlands. A decline of the SOC stock is a consequence of land development for settlements and infrastructure.
Forests are important for the transition to a bioeconomy. With 60% of Europe's forest area owned and managed by small-scale owners, these owners' management behaviour is key. Identifying ...commonalities and differences between owners in different EU countries promotes effective implementation of EU strategies for a sustainable transition to a wood-based bioeconomy. This study examines the value orientations and management behaviour of private small-scale forest owners in five EU countries. Based on a questionnaire survey in Austria, Finland, Germany, Slovenia, and Sweden (n = 2524), we analysed these owners' values, and how various management activities are perceived in relation to management strategies. Respondents rated the importance of economic, environmental, and social values regarding their forest holdings, and were divided into groups based on their value orientation. Overall, the largest value group was ‘All values very important’; more so in Austria, Finland, and Germany than in Slovenia and Sweden. In Finland and Sweden the proportion of respondents in the ‘Economic and environmental values’ value group was low. This suggets that small-scale forest owners in these countries rarely consider economics and the environment together. Forest management activities were applied to varying degrees in the five countries. However, respondents in all countries who considered all values to be very important were the most active in all management activities compared to those who considered all values to be somewhat important. Our analysis highlighted the importance of context, showing that the propensity to use a particular activity was explained to a lesser extent by owner characteristics and value orientation and, in the case of most activities, more strongly by country. The way objectives of policies and management strategies are communicated may need to be adapted to the specific conditions of each country.
•Forest owners consider environmental, social, and economic values of forest all to be very important.•Forest values differ from country to country according to different conditions and national forest policies.•National context, more than forest values, influences the willingness to use various activities?•What is considered a nature-oriented activity in one country is not necessarily the case in another.
Climate change might alter annual snowfall patterns and modify the duration and magnitude of snow cover in temperate regions with resultant impacts on soil microclimate and soil CO sub(2) efflux (F ...sub(soil)). We used a 5-year time series of F sub(soil) measurements from a mid-elevation forest to assess the effects of naturally changing snow cover. Snow cover varied considerably in duration (105-154 days) and depth (mean snow depth 19-59 cm). Periodically shallow snow cover (<10 cm) caused soil freezing or increased variation in soil temperature. This was mostly not reflected in F sub(soil) which tended to decrease gradually throughout winter. Progressively decreasing C substrate availability (identified by substrate induced respiration) likely over-rid the effects of slowly changing soil temperatures and determined the overall course of F sub(soil). Cumulative CO sub(2) efflux from beneath snow cover varied between 0.46 and 0.95 t C ha super(-1) yr super(-1) and amounted to between 6 and 12% of the annual efflux. When compared over a fixed interval (the longest period of snow cover during the 5 years), the cumulative CO sub(2) efflux ranged between 0.77 and 1.18 t C ha super(-1) or between 11 and 15% of the annual soil CO sub(2) efflux. The relative contribution (15%) was highest during the year with the shortest winter. Variations in snow cover were not reflected in the annual CO sub(2) efflux (7.44-8.41 t C ha super(-1 )) which did not differ significantly between years and did not correlate with any snow parameter. Regional climate at our site was characterized by relatively high amounts of precipitation. Therefore, snow did not play a role in terms of water supply during the warm season and primarily affected cold season processes. The role of changing snow cover therefore seems rather marginal when compared to potential climate change effects on F sub(soil) during the warm season.
Abstract
Climate change might alter annual snowfall patterns and modify the duration and magnitude of snow cover in temperate regions with resultant impacts on soil microclimate and soil
CO
2
efflux ...(
F
soil
). We used a 5‐year time series of
F
soil
measurements from a mid‐elevation forest to assess the effects of naturally changing snow cover. Snow cover varied considerably in duration (105–154 days) and depth (mean snow depth 19–59 cm). Periodically shallow snow cover (<10 cm) caused soil freezing or increased variation in soil temperature. This was mostly not reflected in
F
soil
which tended to decrease gradually throughout winter. Progressively decreasing C substrate availability (identified by substrate induced respiration) likely over‐rid the effects of slowly changing soil temperatures and determined the overall course of
F
soil
. Cumulative
CO
2
efflux from beneath snow cover varied between 0.46 and 0.95 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
and amounted to between 6 and 12% of the annual efflux. When compared over a fixed interval (the longest period of snow cover during the 5 years), the cumulative
CO
2
efflux ranged between 0.77 and 1.18 t C ha
−1
or between 11 and 15% of the annual soil
CO
2
efflux. The relative contribution (15%) was highest during the year with the shortest winter. Variations in snow cover were not reflected in the annual
CO
2
efflux (7.44–8.41 t C ha
−1
) which did not differ significantly between years and did not correlate with any snow parameter. Regional climate at our site was characterized by relatively high amounts of precipitation. Therefore, snow did not play a role in terms of water supply during the warm season and primarily affected cold season processes. The role of changing snow cover therefore seems rather marginal when compared to potential climate change effects on
F
soil
during the warm season.
Forest subsidies are widely used to achieve policy objectives aimed at maintaining and supporting the provision of the various ecosystem services provided by forests. In the European Union, an ...important instrument is the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) within the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), but countries also have national subsidy systems. In both cases, individual countries determine which objectives they want to achieve with the subsidy schemes and which measures are supported. In this comparative study, we investigate which forest-related measures are subsidized across Europe and which forest owners, representing a very heterogeneous group, are involved in the activities of the subsidy systems.
We collected data on subsidies paid out for forest-related measures from Austria, Finland, Germany, Slovenia and Sweden from the EAFRD funding period 2014–2020 for a comparison of the funded activities. Further, we analysed how subsidies were distributed among private forest owners with forest holdings of different sizes by performing G-tests to compare the observed with the expected subsidies received by forest owners in the different size categories.
The results show that through the flexibility given by the CAP for countries to adjust their subsidy programmes to the specific national needs, EAFRD funds and equivalent national subsidies are indeed used for a wide range of activities instead of only a few following one common European goal. Reflecting the different needs and various forest functions, the subsidized activities range from the more ecology-oriented “investment to increase resistance and the ecological value of forests” to the more management-oriented “purchase of new machinery and new equipment for forestry operations”.
In all five countries, small-scale forest owners with holdings smaller than 200 ha are the largest owner group and manage a large share of the forest area in private hands (from 47% in Austria to 97% in Slovenia). However, especially owners of the smallest holdings (< 20 ha) rarely use the funding scheme of the EAFRD framework and thus receive a disproportionately low share of subsidies. There might be several reasons for this. Small-scale forest owners are generally less involved regarding policy issues (including subsidy schemes) than owners of larger forest holdings and may not be aware of all funding opportunities. In addition, the considerable effort to apply, including project preparation, administration and documentation may be perceived as a barrier.
It became clear that the current subsidy systems of the countries focus on different forest policy objectives. Our study further revealed that the documentation of subsidy distribution is partly unclear and inconsistent across countries hampering European comparisons. However, understanding current subsidy distribution is urgently needed for increasing the effectiveness of subsidy systems to achieve European policy goals of vital multifunctional forests.
•Forest subsidy systems vary between five assessed EU countries (AT, FI, DE, SI, SE).•Forest subsidies support ecology- and management-oriented measures.•Small-scale forest owners receive a disproportionately low share of subsidies.•Subsidies reflect EU's goal to achieve a sustainable bioeconomy.
The current state of research shows that there is big potential for the use of wood, particularly harvested wood products (HWP) to mitigate climate change and increase carbon stocks. Despite of ...discussions on different accounting approaches, the forest-based sector can contribute with the production of long-lasting wood products to reach international climate goals. This leads to high demands on forests and on what they can deliver both at EU and the national levels. In Austria it has been bemoaned by the Environmental Agency in its recent –eleventh- control report, that a comprehensive concept for the use of wood is missing. The report asks for consideration of increasing future needs for raw wood and energy under considerations of sustainability and under inclusion of all actors involved. Apparently there are some disparities within the different policy instruments. In order to successfully concertise the national policy framework it is of paramount importance to gather the policy actors involved and examine their suggestions for solving the issue. The article is enquiring amongst a number of high level Austrian experts and stakeholders about their perspectives and solutions for enhancing the contribution of the forest based sector to combat climate change. We examine the nature of the suggested instruments and outline the perceived options for action within the capacities of the forest based sector. This is done by way of a triangulation of face-to-face qualitative interviews, moderated focus group discussions and one survey. For the increase in carbon efficiency, all the participants notably emphasise long lasting material use and increase in use. Yet the opinions are contradicting when it comes to energetic use. Our findings indicate that the expert views reflect diverging perspectives on the use of wood for energy consumption. Some opt for policies that support energy consumption of wooden biomass to replace fossil fuels, others want any energy use of wood to become restricted drastically. As a final result, the article derives 16 principle policy measures and instruments that were brought up and assessed by the stakeholders in several rounds of interaction. We conclude that small improvements to existing measures could have ample impacts.
•Material use of long-lasting wood products is first priority policy option.•Forest based industry needs to adapt to changes in tree species due to climate change.•Material use versus energetic use is the most debated issue by stakeholders.•The term “cascadic use” is interpreted differently by stakeholders.
The societal demands on forest management are becoming increasingly diverse, which will be reflected in decisions made by forest owners. We examined the willingness of private forest owners in ...Austria, Finland, Germany, Slovenia, and Sweden to participate in a contract-based payment scheme in which they were asked to apply a specific management strategy to promote either timber production or environmental goals. The preferences for the contract-based management and associated consequences in terms of profitability, biodiversity, carbon stock, and climate change-induced damages were addressed within a choice experiment. A majority of respondents across all countries agreed to participate in a payment scheme to promote environmental goals, while schemes purely targeted to increase wood production were found less attractive. Forest owners liked improvements in profitability and environmental attributes and disliked deterioration of these attributes. Differences among countries were found in the level of expected contract payments, and commonalities were found with respect to preferences towards environmental goals, including biodiversity and carbon stocks. Hence, new policies to target European forest subsidy to promote the provision of environmental goals would likely be acceptable.
In Europe, private forest owners play an important role in achieving sustainability goals, such as those set by the European Green Deal. Efficient communication and coordination with these actors is ...therefore central. However, ongoing structural changes in forest ownership have in many cases silenced traditional communication channels, especially those involving owners of small forests. Their economic performance is often negligible at an individual level, yet collectively their forests play a pivotal role in a context of increasing demand for wood products. In this article, we analyse and compare forest campaigns in nine European countries. Specifically, we assess one-way and two-way communication models applying different techniques to engage (non-traditional) forest owners. Our analysis of 34 campaigns shows that (i) one-way communication models are still more widely used in the forest sector to engage non-traditional forest owners than two-way communication models; (ii) one-way communication aims at informing and is effective for short-term awareness raising, while two-way communication aims at persuading and is essential to trigger forest management activities over the long-term, (iii) interactive learning tools can play a crucial role for reaching and engaging (non-traditional) forest owners. We further conclude that campaigns could be improved by having 1) joint campaigns with public and private actors, 2) convincing narratives developed based on a good understanding of forest owners' motivations, 3) adapting the timing of campaigns to windows of opportunities and 4) developing intermediary associations (e.g. non-traditional forest owner associations) as connectors and trust builders between different actors as they play a crucial role in providing information to forest owners and supporting their engagement.
•One-way communication models are still more widespread in the forest sector than two-way models.•One-way communication aims at informing while two-way communication aims at persuading to trigger FM activities.•Interactive learning tools can play a crucial role for engaging (non-traditional) forest owners.•Joint campaigns (public and private actors) could be more efficient than single campaigns.•Connectors and trust builders are crucial to engage Non-Traditional Forest Owners in active forest management.
Background and Aims
Tree species composition shifts can alter soil CO
2
and N
2
O effluxes. We quantified the soil CO
2
and N
2
O efflux rates and temperature sensitivity from Pyrenean oak, Scots ...pine and mixed stands in Central Spain to assess the effects of a potential expansion of oak forests.
Methods
Soil CO
2
and N
2
O effluxes were measured from topsoil samples by lab incubation from 5 to 25 °C. Soil microbial biomass and community composition were assessed.
Results
Pine stands showed highest soil CO
2
efflux, followed by mixed and oak forests (up to 277, 245 and 145 mg CO
2
-C m
−2
h
−1
, respectively). Despite contrasting soil microbial community composition (more fungi and less actinomycetes in pine plots), carbon decomposability and temperature sensitivity of the soil CO
2
efflux remain constant among tree species. Soil N
2
O efflux rates and its temperature sensitivity was markedly higher in oak stands than in pine stands (70 vs. 27 μg N
2
O-N m
−2
h
−1
, Q
10
, 4.5 vs. 2.5).
Conclusions
Conversion of pine to oak forests in the region will likely decrease soil CO
2
effluxes due to decreasing SOC contents on the long run and will likely enhance soil N
2
O effluxes. Our results present only a seasonal snapshot and need to be confirmed in the field.
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