We present three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations of the evolution of core-collapse supernovae (SN) from blast-wave initiation by the neutrino-driven mechanism to shock breakout from the stellar ...surface, using an axis-free Yin-Yang grid and considering two 15 M⊙ red supergiants (RSG) and two blue supergiants (BSG) of 15 M⊙ and 20 M⊙. We demonstrate that the metal-rich ejecta in homologous expansion still carry fingerprints of asymmetries at the beginning of the explosion, but the final metal distribution is massively affected by the detailed progenitor structure. The most extended and fastest metal fingers and clumps are correlated with the biggest and fastest-rising plumes of neutrino-heated matter, because these plumes most effectively seed the growth of Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) instabilities at the C+O/He and He/H composition-shell interfaces after the passage of the SN shock. The extent of radial mixing, global asymmetry of the metal-rich ejecta, RT-induced fragmentation of initial plumes to smaller-scale fingers, and maximum Ni and minimum H velocities depend not only on the initial asphericity and explosion energy (which determine the shock and initial Ni velocities), but also on the density profiles and widths of C+O core and He shell and on the density gradient at the He/H transition, which leads to unsteady shock propagation and the formation of reverse shocks. Both RSG explosions retain a large global metal asymmetry with pronounced clumpiness and substructure, deep penetration of Ni fingers into the H-envelope (with maximum velocities of 4000–5000 km s-1 for an explosion energy around 1.5 bethe) and efficient inward H-mixing. While the 15 M⊙ BSG shares these properties (maximum Ni speeds up to ~3500 km s-1), the 20 M⊙ BSG develops a much more roundish geometry without pronounced metal fingers (maximum Ni velocities only ~2200 km s-1) because of reverse-shock deceleration and insufficient time for strong RT growth and fragmentation at the He/H interface.
Since core-collapse supernova simulations still struggle to produce robust neutrino-driven explosions in 3D, it has been proposed that asphericities caused by convection in the progenitor might ...facilitate shock revival by boosting the activity of non-radial hydrodynamic instabilities in the post-shock region. We investigate this scenario in depth using 42 relativistic 2D simulations with multigroup neutrino transport to examine the effects of velocity and density perturbations in the progenitor for different perturbation geometries that obey fundamental physical constraints (like the anelastic condition). As a framework for analysing our results, we introduce semi-empirical scaling laws relating neutrino heating, average turbulent velocities in the gain region, and the shock deformation in the saturation limit of non-radial instabilities. The squared turbulent Mach number, 〈Ma2〉, reflects the violence of aspherical motions in the gain layer, and explosive runaway occurs for 〈Ma2〉 ≳ 0.3, corresponding to a reduction of the critical neutrino luminosity by
$\mathord {\sim }25$
per cent compared to 1D. In the light of this theory, progenitor asphericities aid shock revival mainly by creating anisotropic mass flux on to the shock: differential infall efficiently converts velocity perturbations in the progenitor into density perturbations δρ/ρ at the shock of the order of the initial convective Mach number Maprog. The anisotropic mass flux and ram pressure deform the shock and thereby amplify post-shock turbulence. Large-scale (ℓ = 2, ℓ = 1) modes prove most conducive to shock revival, whereas small-scale perturbations require unrealistically high convective Mach numbers. Initial density perturbations in the progenitor are only of the order of
$\mathrm{Ma}_\mathrm{prog}^2$
and therefore play a subdominant role.
ABSTRACT Thus far, judging the fate of a massive star (either a neutron star NS or a black hole) solely by its structure prior to core collapse has been ambiguous. Our work and previous attempts find ...a nonmonotonic variation of successful and failed supernovae with zero-age main-sequence mass, for which no single structural parameter can serve as a good predictive measure. However, we identify two parameters computed from the pre-collapse structure of the progenitor, which in combination allow for a clear separation of exploding and nonexploding cases with only a few exceptions (∼1%-2.5%) in our set of 621 investigated stellar models. One parameter is M4, defining the normalized enclosed mass for a dimensionless entropy per nucleon of s = 4, and the other is , being the normalized mass derivative at this location. The two parameters 4 and M4 4 can be directly linked to the mass-infall rate, , of the collapsing star and the electron-type neutrino luminosity of the accreting proto-NS, , which play a crucial role in the "critical luminosity" concept for the theoretical description of neutrino-driven explosions as runaway phenomena of the stalled accretion shock. All models were evolved employing the approach of Ugliano et al. for simulating neutrino-driven explosions in spherical symmetry. The neutrino emission of the accretion layer is approximated by a gray transport solver, while the uncertain neutrino emission of the 1.1 M proto-NS core is parameterized by an analytic model. The free parameters connected to the core-boundary prescription are calibrated to reproduce the observables of SN 1987A for five different progenitor models.
We present two-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations of stellar core collapse and develop the framework for a detailed analysis of the energetic aspects of neutrino-powered supernova explosions. Our ...results confirm that the neutrino-heating mechanism remains a viable explanation of the explosion of a wider mass range of supernova progenitors with iron cores, but the explosion sets in later and develops differently than thought so far. The calculations were performed with an energy-dependent treatment of the neutrino transport based on the 'ray-by-ray plus' approximation, in which the neutrino number, energy, and momentum equations are closed with a variable Eddington factor obtained by iteratively solving a model Boltzmann equation. We focus here on the evolution of a 15 M progenitor and provide evidence that shock revival and an explosion are initiated at about 600 ms after core bounce, powered by neutrino energy deposition. This is significantly later than previously found for an 11.2 M star, for which we also present a continuation of the explosion model published by Buras et al. The onset of the blast is fostered in both cases by the standing accretion-shock instability. This instability exhibits highest growth rates for the dipole and quadrupole modes, which lead to large-amplitude bipolar shock oscillations and push the shock to larger radii, thus increasing the time accreted matter is exposed to neutrino heating in the gain layer. As a consequence, also convective overturn behind the shock is strengthened, which otherwise is suppressed or damped because of the small shock stagnation radius. When the explosion sets in, the shock reveals a pronounced global deformation with a dominant dipolar component. In both the 11.2 M and 15 M explosions long-lasting equatorial downflows supply the gain layer with fresh gas, of which a sizable fraction is heated by neutrinos and leads to the build-up of the explosion energy of the ejecta over possibly hundreds of milliseconds. A 'soft' nuclear equation of state that causes a rapid contraction, and a smaller radius of the forming neutron star and thus a fast release of gravitational binding energy, seems to be more favorable for the development of an explosion. Rotation has the opposite effect because in the long run it leads to a more extended and cooler neutron star and thus lower neutrino luminosities and mean energies and overall less neutrino heating. Neutron star g-mode oscillations, although we see their presence, and the acoustic mechanism play no important role in our simulations. While numerical tests show that our code is also well able to follow large-amplitude core g-modes if they are instigated; the amplitude of such oscillations remains small in our supernova runs and the acoustic energy flux injected by the ringing neutron star and by the deceleration of supersonic downflows near the neutron star surface is small compared to the neutrino energy deposition.
Abstract
We present gravitational wave (GW) signal predictions from four 3D multigroup neutrino hydrodynamics simulations of core-collapse supernovae of progenitors with 11.2, 20 and 27 M⊙. GW ...emission in the pre-explosion phase strongly depends on whether the post-shock flow is dominated by the standing accretion shock instability (SASI) or convection and differs considerably from 2D models. SASI activity produces a strong signal component below 250 Hz through asymmetric mass motions in the gain layer and a non-resonant coupling to the proto-neutron star (PNS). Both convection- and SASI-dominated models show GW emission above 250 Hz, but with considerably lower amplitudes than in 2D. This is due to a different excitation mechanism for high-frequency l = 2 motions in the PNS surface, which are predominantly excited by PNS convection in 3D. Resonant excitation of high-frequency surface g modes in 3D by mass motions in the gain layer is suppressed compared to 2D because of smaller downflow velocities and a lack of high-frequency variability in the downflows. In the exploding 20 M⊙ model, shock revival results in enhanced low-frequency emission due to a change of the preferred scale of the convective eddies in the PNS convection zone. Estimates of the expected excess power in two frequency bands suggest that second-generation detectors will only be able to detect very nearby events, but that third-generation detectors could distinguish SASI- and convection-dominated models at distances of $\mathord {\sim } 10 \, \mathrm{kpc}$.
We present three-dimensional (3D) simulations of supernova explosions of nonrotating stars, triggered by the delayed neutrino-heating mechanism with a suitable choice of the core-neutrino luminosity. ...Our results show that asymmetric mass ejection caused by hydrodynamic instabilities can accelerate the neutron star (NS) up to recoil velocities of more than 700 km s-1 by the “gravitational tug-boat mechanism”, which is sufficient to explain most observed pulsar space velocities. The associated NS spin periods for our nonrotating progenitors are about 100 ms to 8000 ms without any obvious correlation between spin and kick magnitudes or directions. This suggests that faster spins and a possible spin-kick alignment might require angular momentum in the progenitor core prior to collapse. Our simulations for the first time demonstrate a clear correlation between the size of the NS kick and anisotropic production and distribution of heavy elements created by explosive burning behind the shock. In the case of large pulsar kicks, the explosion is significantly stronger opposite to the kick vector. Therefore the bulk of the explosively fused iron-group elements, in particular nickel, are ejected mostly in large clumps against the kick direction. This contrasts with the case of low recoil velocity, where the nickel-rich lumps are more isotropically distributed. Explosively produced intermediate-mass nuclei heavier than 28Si (like 40Ca and 44Ti) also exhibit significant enhancement in the hemisphere opposite to the direction of fast NS motion, while the distribution of 12C, 16O, and 20Ne is not affected, and that of 24Mg only marginally. Mapping the spatial distribution of the heavy elements in supernova remnants with identified pulsar motion may offer an important diagnostic test of the kick mechanism. Unlike kick scenarios based on anisotropic neutrino emission, our hydrodynamical acceleration model predicts enhanced ejection of iron-group elements and of their nuclear precursors in the opposite direction to the NS recoil.
We investigate β-interactions of free nucleons and their impact on the electron fraction (Y
e) and r-process nucleosynthesis in ejecta characteristic of binary neutron star mergers (BNSMs). For that ...we employ trajectories from a relativistic BNSM model to represent the density–temperature evolutions in our parametric study. In the high-density environment, positron captures decrease the neutron richness at the high temperatures predicted by the hydrodynamic simulation. Circumventing the complexities of modelling three-dimensional neutrino transport, (anti)neutrino captures are parametrized in terms of prescribed neutrino luminosities and mean energies, guided by published results and assumed as constant in time. Depending sensitively on the adopted νe–
$\bar{\nu }_{\rm e}$
luminosity ratio, neutrino processes increase Y
e to values between 0.25 and 0.40, still allowing for a successful r-process compatible with the observed solar abundance distribution and a significant fraction of the ejecta consisting of r-process nuclei. If the νe luminosities and mean energies are relatively large compared to the
$\bar{\nu }_{\rm e}$
properties, the mean Y
e might reach values >0.40 so that neutrino captures seriously compromise the success of the r-process. In this case, the r-abundances remain compatible with the solar distribution, but the total amount of ejected r-material is reduced to a few per cent, because the production of iron-peak elements is favoured. Proper neutrino physics, in particular also neutrino absorption, have to be included in BNSM simulations before final conclusions can be drawn concerning r-processing in this environment and concerning observational consequences like kilonovae, whose peak brightness and colour temperature are sensitive to the composition-dependent opacity of the ejecta.
Type II-plateau supernovae (SNe IIP) are the most numerous subclass of core-collapse SNe originating from massive stars. In the framework of the neutrino-driven explosion mechanism, we study the ...properties of the SN outburst for a red supergiant progenitor model and compare the corresponding light curves with observations of the ordinary Type IIP SN 1999em. Three-dimensional (3D) simulations of (parametrically triggered) neutrino-driven explosions are performed with the (explicit, finite-volume, Eulerian, multifluid hydrodynamics) code Prometheus, using a presupernova model of a 15 M star as initial data. On approaching homologous expansion, the hydrodynamic and composition variables of the 3D models are mapped to a spherically symmetric configuration, and the simulations are continued with the (implicit, Lagrangian, radiation hydrodynamics) code Crab to follow the evolution of the blast wave during the SN outburst. Our 3D neutrino-driven explosion model with an explosion energy of about erg produces 56Ni in rough agreement with the amount deduced from fitting the radioactively powered light-curve tail of SN 1999em. The considered presupernova model, 3D explosion simulations, and light-curve calculations can explain the basic observational features of SN 1999em, except for those connected to the presupernova structure of the outer stellar layers. Our 3D simulations show that the distribution of 56Ni-rich matter in velocity space is asymmetric with a strong dipole component that is consistent with the observations of SN 1999em. The monotonic decline in luminosity from the plateau to the radioactive tail in ordinary SNe IIP is a manifestation of the intense turbulent mixing at the He/H composition interface.
We study the amplification of magnetic fields in the collapse and the post-bounce evolution of the core of a non-rotating star of 15 M⊙ in axisymmetry. To this end, we solve the coupled equations of ...magnetohydrodynamics and neutrino transport in the two-moment approximation. The pre-collapse magnetic field is strongly amplified by compression in the infall. Initial fields of the order of 1010 G translate into protoneutron star fields similar to the ones observed in pulsars, while stronger initial fields yield magnetar-like final field strengths. After core bounce, the field is advected through the hydrodynamically unstable neutrino-heating layer, where non-radial flows due to convection and the standing accretion shock instability amplify the field further. Consequently, the resulting amplification factor of the order of 5 is the result of the number of small-eddy turnovers taking place within the time-scale of advection through the post-shock layer. Due to this limit, most of our models do not reach equipartition between kinetic and magnetic energy and, consequently, evolve similarly to the non-magnetic case, exploding after about 800 ms when a single or few high-entropy bubbles persist over several dynamical time-scales. In the model with the strongest initial field we studied, 1012 G, for which equipartition between flow and field is achieved, the magnetic tension favours a much earlier development of such long-lived high-entropy bubbles and enforces a fairly ordered large-scale flow pattern. Consequently, this model, after exhibiting very regular shock oscillations, explodes much earlier than non-magnetic ones.
We analyze the linear stability of a stalled accretion shock in a perfect gas with a parameterized cooling function 8P super(b-a)P super(a) 8 r super(b-a) P super(a). The instability is dominated by ...the l = 1 mode if the shock radius exceeds 2-3 times the accretor radius, depending on the parameters of the cooling function. The growth rate and oscillation period are comparable to those observed in the numerical simulations of Blondin & Mezzacappa. The instability mechanism is analyzed by separately measuring the efficiencies of the purely acoustic cycle and the advective-acoustic cycle. These efficiencies are estimated directly from the eigenspectrum and also through a WKB analysis in the high-frequency limit. Both methods prove that the advective-acoustic cycle is unstable and that the purely acoustic cycle is stable. Extrapolating these results to low frequency leads us to interpret the dominant mode as an advective-acoustic instability, different from the purely acoustic interpretation of Blondin & Mezzacappa. A simplified characterization of the instability is proposed, based on an advective-acoustic cycle between the shock and the radius rv where the velocity gradients of the stationary flow are strongest. The importance of the coupling region in this mechanism calls for a better understanding of the conditions for an efficient advective-acoustic coupling in a decelerated, nonadiabatic flow, in order to extend these results to core-collapse supernovae.
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