Conservationists need to measure human behavior to guide decisions and evaluate their impact. However, activities can be misreported and reporting accuracy may change following conservation ...interventions, making it hard to verify any apparent changes. Techniques for asking sensitive questions are increasingly integrated into survey designs to improve data quality, but some can be costly or hard for nonexperts to implement. We demonstrate a straightforward, low‐cost approach, the bean method in which respondents give anonymous answers by adding a colored bean to a jar to denote a yes or no response. We applied the bean method to measure wild‐meat hunting and trading over 2 years at a conservation‐project (hunting reduction) site in Gola Forest, Liberia. We extended the technique to accommodate questions about hunting and meat‐selling frequency. We compared responses given using the bean method and direct questioning for groups that did and did not participate in conservation interventions. Results from the bean method corresponded to those from direct questioning, and there was no indication of change in question sensitivity following conservation interventions. Estimates from both methods indicated that wild‐meat trading decreased in project and nonproject households (from 36% to 20%) and that hunting decreased in 1 project group (38–28%). Where inconsistent answers were given (2–6% of respondents), differences were in both directions and were most likely attributable to measurement error. The bean method was quick and straightforward to administer in a low‐literacy setting. We showed how it can be modified for answers of more than 2 categories and consider it a valuable tool that could be adapted for a wide range of conservation settings.
El Método del Frijol como Herramienta para Medir los Comportamientos Sensibles
Resumen
Los conservacionistas necesitan medir el comportamiento humano para dirigir las decisiones tomadas y evaluar su impacto. Sin embargo, las actividades pueden estar mal reportadas y la fiabilidad de los reportes puede cambiar después de implementadas las intervenciones de conservación, lo cual complica la verificación de cualquier cambio aparente. Las técnicas para realizar preguntas sensibles cada vez se integran más al diseño de los censos y así mejorar la calidad de los datos, aunque algunas pueden ser caras o complicadas de implementar para quienes no son expertos. Demostramos una estrategia directa y de bajo costo, el método del frijol, en el cual los respondientes proporcionan respuestas anónimas al añadir un frijol pintado dentro de un frasco y así indicar una respuesta de sí o no. Aplicamos el método del frijol para medir la cacería y el mercado de carne silvestre durante dos años dentro de un proyecto de conservación (reducción de la cacería) en el bosque Gola, Liberia. Extendimos la técnica para acomodar preguntas sobre la frecuencia de la caza y la venta de carne. Comparamos las respuestas dadas usando el método del frijol y aquellas dadas en el cuestionamiento directo a grupos que participaban o no en las intervenciones de conservación. Los resultados obtenidos con el método del frijol correspondieron a aquellos obtenidos con los cuestionamientos directos y no hubo indicación de cambios en la sensibilidad de las preguntas después de las intervenciones de conservación. Las estimaciones de ambos métodos indicaron que el mercado de carne silvestre disminuyó en los hogares participantes o no en el proyecto (de 36% a 20%) y que la cacería disminuyó en un grupo del proyecto (38% a 28%). En donde se dieron respuestas contradictorias (2‐6% de los respondientes), las diferencias fueron en ambas direcciones y en su mayoría probablemente eran atribuibles al error en la medición. El método del frijol fue rápido y directo para administrarlo en un ambiente de bajo alfabetismo. Mostramos cómo puede modificarse para respuestas con más de dos categorías y lo consideramos una herramienta valiosa que podría adaptarse para una gama amplia de escenarios de conservación.
摘要
保护主义者常常需要测量人类行为来指导决策及评估其影响。然而, 对人类行为的报告可能存在问题, 且报告的准确性可能会随着保护措施变化而变化, 以致难以确定明显的变化。设计调查时已越来越多地纳入了询问敏感问题的技巧, 以提高数据质量, 但对于非专业人士来说, 有些技巧可能成本过高或难以实现。本研究展示了一种简单、低成本的方法——bean方法, 在使用该方法时, 受访者只需向罐子中放入一个彩色的豆子 (bean) 来匿名地回答“是”或“否”。我们在利比里亚戈拉森林利用该方法调查了一个保护项目 (减少狩猎) 中人们对野味狩猎和交易的态度。我们通过扩展相应的方法, 将其应用于狩猎和野味交易频率的提问中, 并在曾经参与和没有参与保护干预的群体中, 比较了使用 bean 方法和直接询问获得的回答。使用 bean 方法的结果与直接询问的结果相互一致, 且在进行保护干预后, 问题敏感性没有明显变化。两种方法的估计结果均表明, 有无参与保护项目的家庭的野味交易都有所下降 (从 36% 减少到 20%), 另外, 保护项目的一个参与组还减少了狩猎 (从 38% 减少到 28%) 。当受访者给出不一致的答案时 (占受访者 2–6%), 差异存在于两个方向, 这最有可能是来自测量误差。 bean 方法在受访者的低文化水平背景下有助于快速而直接的实施调查。我们还展示了当答案超过两种类型时如何调整该方法。最后, 我们认为 bean 方法作为一项保护工具很有价值, 可以广泛适用于不同背景下的保护。【翻译: 胡怡思;审校: 聂永刚】
Managing natural resources often depends on influencing people's behaviour, however effectively targeting interventions to discourage environmentally harmful behaviours is challenging because those ...involved may be unwilling to identify themselves. Non-sensitive indicators of sensitive behaviours are therefore needed. Previous studies have investigated people's attitudes, assuming attitudes reflect behaviour. There has also been interest in using people's estimates of the proportion of their peers involved in sensitive behaviours to identify those involved, since people tend to assume that others behave like themselves. However, there has been little attempt to test the potential of such indicators. We use the randomized response technique (RRT), designed for investigating sensitive behaviours, to estimate the proportion of farmers in north-eastern South Africa killing carnivores, and use a modified logistic regression model to explore relationships between our best estimates of true behaviour (from RRT) and our proposed non-sensitive indicators (including farmers' attitudes, and estimates of peer-behaviour). Farmers' attitudes towards carnivores, question sensitivity and estimates of peers' behaviour, predict the likelihood of farmers killing carnivores. Attitude and estimates of peer-behaviour are useful indicators of involvement in illicit behaviours and may be used to identify groups of people to engage in interventions aimed at changing behaviour.
The effective management of natural systems often requires resource users to change their behaviour. This has led to many applied ecologists using research tools developed by social scientists. This ...comes with challenges as ecologists often lack relevant disciplinary training. Using an example from the current issue of Journal of Applied Ecology that investigated how conservation interventions influenced conservation outcomes, we discuss the challenges of conducting interdisciplinary science. We illustrate our points using examples from research investigating the role of law enforcement and outreach activities in limiting illegal poaching and the application of the theory of planned behaviour to conservation. Synthesis and applications. Interdisciplinary research requires equal rigour to be applied to ecological and social aspects. Researchers with a natural science background need to access expertise and training in the principles of social science research design and methodology, in order to permit a more balanced interdisciplinary understanding of social–ecological systems.
Harvest data are widely used to understand hunting in tropical forests. However, survey methods are susceptible to biases which could affect results. We compare catch data from two approaches applied ...concurrently in the same villages (n = 7) in Gola Forest, Liberia: hunter recall interviews (n = 208 hunters, 253 trips) and continuous monitoring by village‐based assistants (n = 53 hunters, 404 trips). We use Bayesian multi‐level models to: (a) compare estimates of animals killed per trip for each data source; (b) test whether differences between villages are consistent across data sources and (c) identify potential sources of bias. Hunter recall produced higher, and more variable, catch estimates than village‐based monitoring, with mean of 7.3 animals 6.0–8.8 95%CI compared to 3.0 2.4–3.6, for a trip lasting 3.2 days (the average duration from village‐based monitoring). Mean catch‐per‐village from village‐based monitoring failed to predict hunter recall catch and villages with highest catch differed between methods. Differences in trip duration were a potential source of bias: hunter recall recorded longer, more variable, trips (mean 4.0 ± SD 3.0 days, range = 1–32) than village‐based monitoring (mean 3.2 ± SD 1.7, range = 1–10). Longer trips were associated with higher catch‐per‐day, use of guns, forest camps and accompaniment by another person; so nonrandom sampling of these traits may have introduced bias. Between‐hunter variability was lower with village‐based monitoring, suggesting sampling captured a less diverse subgroup of hunters, or that recall data were noisier due to reporting errors. Our results demonstrate that methodological biases can have large effects on catch estimates and should be carefully considered when designing or interpreting hunting studies.
Summary
The effective management of natural systems often requires resource users to change their behaviour. This has led to many applied ecologists using research tools developed by social ...scientists. This comes with challenges as ecologists often lack relevant disciplinary training.
Using an example from the current issue of Journal of Applied Ecology that investigated how conservation interventions influenced conservation outcomes, we discuss the challenges of conducting interdisciplinary science. We illustrate our points using examples from research investigating the role of law enforcement and outreach activities in limiting illegal poaching and the application of the theory of planned behaviour to conservation.
Synthesis and applications. Interdisciplinary research requires equal rigour to be applied to ecological and social aspects. Researchers with a natural science background need to access expertise and training in the principles of social science research design and methodology, in order to permit a more balanced interdisciplinary understanding of social–ecological systems.
Interdisciplinary research requires equal rigour to be applied to ecological and social aspects. Researchers with a natural science background need to access expertise and training in the principles of social science research design and methodology, in order to permit a more balanced interdisciplinary understanding of social–ecological systems.
This chapter focuses on the small‐scale behaviour of individuals and households in poor rural areas of the developing world because much conservation activity is focused in these biodiversity‐rich ...places which are under threat. It first provides an overview of the most important and relevant theories of human decision making, and how they relate to environmental behaviour. It then shows how this theory can be applied in conservation interventions, both in general and through the use of particular social science research tools. The chapter concludes by suggesting what is needed to facilitate proactive, dynamic conservation in the future that takes account of the adaptive powers that people have to change their behaviour as circumstances change.
Conservation conflicts represent complex multilayered problems that are challenging to study. We explore the utility of theoretical, experimental, and constructivist approaches to games to help to ...understand and manage these challenges. We show how these approaches can help to develop theory, understand patterns in conflict, and highlight potentially effective management solutions. The choice of approach should be guided by the research question and by whether the focus is on testing hypotheses, predicting behaviour, or engaging stakeholders. Games provide an exciting opportunity to help to unravel the complexity in conflicts, while researchers need an awareness of the limitations and ethical constraints involved. Given the opportunities, this field will benefit from greater investment and development.
•Improvements in wellbeing coincided with higher rates of land use intensification with smallholder commercial and subsistence agricultural expansion.•No changes to wellbeing were observed with the ...intensification of charcoal production.•Improvements in the wellbeing of the poorest were only found under circumstances of higher market integration.•Sustainable and inclusive markets were required alongside land use intensification to improve wellbeing for all households.•We advocate for broader framings for land use intensification, to reflect smallholder-dominated landscapes and critically engage with discussions around sustainable development.
Intensifying land use is often seen as a corollary of improving rural livelihoods in developing countries. However, land use intensification (LUI) frequently has unintended impacts on ecosystem services (ES), which may undermine the livelihoods of the same people who could benefit from intensification. Poorer households are disproportionately dependent on ES, so inequalities may also rise. A disaggregated analysis of LUI is thus fundamental to better understand how LUI can progress in an equitable manner. Using a suite of multi-scale, multidisciplinary social-ecological methods and operationalising multidimensional concepts of land use intensity and wellbeing, we examine three case studies in rural Mozambique. Drawing on interviews, focus group discussions, 1576 household surveys and geospatial data from 27 Mozambican villages, we assess how wellbeing and inequality change with three common LUI pathways: transitions to smallholder commercial crop production, charcoal production, and subsistence expansion. Wellbeing improved with intensification of smallholder commercial and subsistence agriculture, inequality did not change. Unsustainable intensification of charcoal production showed no overall effect on either wellbeing or inequality. Improvements in wellbeing amongst the poorest households were only found with intensification of commercial crop production, where villages had better access to markets. Our findings suggest that socioeconomic benefits from agricultural intensification and expansion may overcome localised environmental trade-offs, at least in the short term. However, unsustainable charcoal resource management and limited productive investment opportunities for rural households resulted in both reduced market access and limited wellbeing improvements. Sustainable and inclusive markets are therefore crucial developments alongside LUI to sustain wellbeing improvements for all households, to ensure that no one is left behind.
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