•Cappadocia region various historical buildings constructed by several civilizations.•Tuff, ignimbrite, marble, travertine and andesite were used in examined buildings.•The lowest engineering ...properties were determined in ignimbrites and tuffs.•The highest strength and resistance against weathering were obtained from andesite.•The biggest scale of deteriorations was found on ignimbrites in capillary level.
The Cappadocia region hosts various historical buildings constructed by several civilisations from long in the past until more recently. Some of these are big and significant buildings and their artistic, cultural and aesthetical features are quite attention-grabbing. The stones used in most of these buildings have deteriorated due to various effects. The correct identification of the deterioration mechanisms is of fundamental importance to design retrofitting and restoration procedures. In this study we aimed to determine the engineering properties and deterioration of the stones widely used in the different historical buildings in the Nigde region that forms the southern boundary of Cappadocia. 17 block samples (2 marble, 2 travertine, 6 tuff, 5 ignimbrite and 1 andesite) were taken – in accordance with the obtained permits – from stones that had fallen from the buildings and could not be used again as part of any restoration. With the purpose ofidentifying the deterioration of the building stones due to their geological structure and external effects, chemical and petrographic analyses were conducted along with detailed field observations. To determine the geomechanical properties (dry unit weight, water absorption, effective porosity, P-wave velocity, uniaxial compressive strength, slake durability index, capillary water absorption, Bohme abrasion value and Schmidt hammer rebound value) of the stones comprehensive laboratory research was carried out. The main cause of the deterioration observed in ignimbrites (UK3) and tuffs (AK3) with low strength and high porosity was humidity, especially at the capillary level. Significant deterioration observed on some stone samples was also due to the use of stones that exhibited poorer properties than the rest, although they came from the same quarry. Adding the negative effects of ground and surface water on top of these, severe damage on the stones in the formof flaking, discolouration and loss of strength were observed.
Many archaeological and historical monuments constructed by different civilizations over the last 5500 years can be observed in the Niğde region located in central Anatolia. The Tyana aqueduct as a ...continuation of the Roman Pool is one such important historical monument. The aqueducts that carried the water of the Roman Pool to the ancient city of Tyana were constructed during the time of the Roman emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Half of the total length of the aqueducts (3 km) is on the surface and the rest is buried. The engineering properties of the rocks used in such archaeological and historical buildings are very important in terms of conserving these structures for future generations. In this study, the geomechanical and geotechnical features of the Tyana aqueducts were investigated to understand the rock types, deterioration in the stones over time and problems originating from these features. Also, for restoration purposes, the ancient stone quarry areas for the aqueducts were identified, and the chemical, petrographical and geomechanical properties of fresh travertine blocks from these quarries were determined. The main rock type used as building stones in the aqueducts is Mio-Pliocene travertine. Laboratory studies were performed to determine the mineralogical, petrographic and petrophysical properties of the building stone samples. Fresh and used travertine samples were composed exclusively of calcite crystal. The results of chemical analyses were similar for fresh and used travertine samples. To determine the geomechanical properties of the travertines, dry unit weight, water absorption, effective porosity, P-wave velocity, Böhme abrasion test, capillary water absorption and uniaxial compressive strength experiments were conducted. In addition, Schmidt hammer hardness measurements were performed on site for the different levels and different textural characteristics of the belts on the travertines. According to the experimental data obtained, higher strength was displayed by samples with fine grains, massive texture and low porosity. The deterioration effects in most of the travertines used in the original structure are very low. In addition to human effects, the use of small stone dimensions (especially the stones used in belts as keystones) and the use of stone from the same quarry but with features that differ or are inferior are thought to be factors in the destruction of the Tyana aqueducts.
This study aimed to determine the impact of land use/cover changes on the heavy metal content in the Sultan Marshland and surrounding area and assess the pollution status. 54 topsoil samples ...(0–20 cm) were collected from the Rangeland, Farmland, Scrubland, Southern Marshland, Northern Marshland, and Dry Lake areas. The heavy metal contents of the soil samples (Cr, Pb, Fe, Zn, Cu, Co, Mn, Cd, Mo, As, and Ni) were determined using ICP-MS and ICP-OES devices. The impact of land use/cover change on soil heavy metal content was evaluated using variance analysis, while differences between groups were identified using the Duncan test. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted to identify potential sources of heavy metals. The contamination status of the soils was evaluated based on land use/cover using the Contamination Factor (Cf), Pollution Load Index (PLI), Ecological Risk Factor (Er), and Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI).
Changes in land use/cover around the Sultan Marshlands affected heavy metal distribution of the soils except for Cd. Among all land use/cover types, Fe concentration was the highest in the soils, while Cd concentration was the lowest. Soils in Southern Marshland exhibited higher average concentrations of Cr, Fe, Zn, Co, Cu, and Ni compared to other land uses/covers. Farmlands and rangelands had higher concentrations of Cd, As and Pb. Land use/cover was ranked based on the total heavy metal load in the following order in terms of average values: Southern Marshland > Scrubland > Farmland > Rangeland > Northern Marshland > Dry Lake. According to Cf, the soils in the Dry Lake were exposed to considerable levels of As contamination. Based on PLI, half of the soil sampling points in the Southern Marshland soils showed a degradation in environmental quality. Er indicated that all land uses moderately polluted with Cd. According to the average PERI, all soils under different land use/cover types were categorized as having a low ecological risk. It was believed that heavy metals originated from both natural and human activities. To ensure the sustainability of the ecosystem and to mitigate the risk of heavy metal pollution entering the food chain, it is recommended to manage farming and mining activities and land use habits.
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•Land use has significantly affected the distribution of heavy metals in soils in Sultan Marshes.•Heavy metal concentrations were highest in the Southern Marshland, Rangeland and Farmland.•Heavy metals mainly from geological, mining and farming activities.•Cd, Pb and As concentration of soils increased after the wetland conversion to farmland.•Soils in all land use types have a low ecological risk in terms of heavy metals.
•We found that surface roughness of the stone had a great impact on the growth of plant.•The plants cover the stone surfaces and induce the visual pollution.•The highest surface roughness values ...belong to the travertines with high porosity.•The plants growing were mostly observed at horizontal or slightly sloped parts of the buildings.
Rock surfaces are modified in natural outcrops depending on the interaction between the atmosphere and the rock. Biological factors are natural conditions that have persistent adverse effects on historical buildings. Because the effects of these factors are continuous and slow, the measures taken are mostly neglected. Primary biological effects come from plants that grow on buildings, which can cause them harm. In the field of study, there are significant historical buildings located in central Anatolia (Niğde region) that have hosted many civilizations over time. In this study, 6 historical buildings constructed with different stones were chosen to determine which plants grow on these historical buildings and whether they cause harm to these buildings. First, the mineralogical and engineering properties of the stones used in these buildings were determined; then, the studies regarding surface roughness were conducted. It was determined that the types of stones, their locations on the building and the surface roughness of the stone had a great impact on plant growth. It was observed that although the deserted churches were constructed using high strength stones, the herbaceous and woody plants growing in the gaps between the stones located on horizontal or slightly sloped parts of the building with a high level of surface roughness cause substantial harm to the roof coating.
The aim of this study is to investigate the water pollution in the Akkaya Dam watershed spatially and temporally and put forward management suggestions in a watershed scale. For this purpose, monthly ...water sampling was performed from 11 sampling stations on streams that fed the dam. According to land surveys they have a potential to inflict pollution to the dam. Thus the physical and chemical parameters (i.e. pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, temperature, chemical oxygen demand, turbidity and suspended solids) were monitored monthly for 1-year period. Chloride, sulfate, total nitrogen, ammonium, nitrite, nitrate were monitored for a 6-month period, and the results were evaluated in accordance with the Turkish Regulation of Surface Water Quality Management. Results of the study show that the most important reasons for the pollution in the dam are caused by domestic and industrial wastewaters, which were released to the system without being treated, or without being sufficiently treated, and also of agricultural activities. It was determined that electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, chemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, nitrite, nitrate, total nitrogen, sulfate, and chloride parameters which were high at the sampling stations where domestic and industrial wastewaters discharge were present. pH and temperature demonstrate a difference at a significant level by seasons. As a result of the study, it was determined that the water was of IVth quality in terms of nitrate, chemical oxygen demand, and total nitrogen, and it was of IIIrd quality water with respect to ammonium, electrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen. It was observed that the dam outflow water was of IVth quality with respect to nitrate, chemical oxygen demand, and total nitrogen, and of IIIrd quality with respect to dissolved oxygen and electrical conductivity. It is considered that the pollution problem in the Akkaya Dam can only be resolved with prevention studies on a watershed scale. Therefore, coordination between the institutions is necessary. The preparation for the integrated water management plan of the watershed will provide a significant contribution to the solution of the water quality problem.
•Temporal and spatial water quality of Akkaya Dam watershed was analysed.•Domestic and industrial wastewaters are main causes of pollution.•The dam water was of IVth quality in terms of nitrate, chemical oxygen demand, and total nitrogen.•pH and temperature show seasonal variations.•There is a necessity to establishing a water management plan.
•Deterioration development in archeological sites.•Determination of stone deterioration via artificial intelligence.•Deterioration map with Mask R-CNN.
The detection of deterioration in archeological ...heritage sites is a very time-consuming task that requires expertise. Furthermore, vision-based approaches can cause errors, considering the complex types of deterioration that develop in different scales and forms in monuments. This problem can be solved effectively owing to computer vision algorithms, commonly used in different areas nowadays. This study aims to develop a model that automatically detects and maps deteriorations (biological colonization, contour scaling, crack, higher plant, impact damage, microkarst, missing part) and restoration interventions using the Mask R-CNN algorithm, which has recently come to the fore with its feature of recognizing small and large-sized objects. To this end, a total of 2460 images of Yazılıkaya monuments in the Hattusa archeological site, which is on the UNESCO heritage list, were gathered. In the training phase of the proposed method, it was trained in model 1 to distinguish deposit deterioration commonly observed on the surface of monuments from other anomalies. Other anomalies trained were model 2. In this phase of the models, the average precision values with high accuracy rates ranging from 89.624% to 100% were obtained for the deterioration classes. The developed algorithms were tested on 4 different rock reliefs in Yazılıkaya, which were not used in the training phase. In addition, an image of the Eflatunpınar water monument, which is on the UNESCO tentative list, was used to test the model's universality. According to the test results, it was determined that the models could be successfully applied to obtain maps of deterioration and restoration interventions in monuments in different regions.
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Petrographic properties of rocks substantially affect their physical and mechanical properties. In the present study, for the purpose of examining the relationship between the petrographic and ...geomechanical properties of pyroclastic rocks, fresh samples were taken from tuffs of different textural properties that have wide distribution in Cappadocia region. Experimental studies were conducted on 20 fresh samples to determine their engineering properties through petrographic examinations. Dry and saturated unit weights, water absorption by weight, effective porosity, capillary water absorption, slake durability index, P-wave velocity, point load index, uniaxial compressive strength and nail penetration index of the samples were determined. Higher geomechanical values were obtained from the samples of Kavak tuffs affected by hydromechanical alteration and by tuffs with high welded rates. On thin sections prepared with the fresh samples, petrographic studies were carried out by using a point counter with a polarizing microscope, and mineral composition, texture, void ratio, volcanic glass presence and state of these fragments within the rock, secondary mineral formation and opaque mineral presence were determined. Grain/matrix ratio (GMR) was calculated by using the ratios of phenocrysts, microlites, volcanic glass, voids and opaque minerals after point counting on thin sections. A potential relationship between the petrographic and geomechanical properties of fresh samples was tried to determine by counting correlation analysis. Such a relationship can be significantly and extensively suggestible for engineering applications. For this purpose, we used the poorly-welded Kavak and densely-welded Kızılkaya tuff samples in our study.
•Petrographic properties of rocks substantially affect their engineering properties.•Grain/matrix ratio (GMR) was calculated by using petrographic properties of rocks.•The GMR was used as a petrographic indicator to describe geomechanical properties.•Higher relationships were found between petrographical and geomechanical properties.
This study aims to assess the effects of land-use changes on the carbon storage capacity and some soil properties of The Sultan Marshes, a wetland partially drained and converted to other land uses ...during the middle of the last century. Undisturbed soil sampling was performed in different land-use types (rangelands, shrubs, marsh, agriculture, and dried lake area) in the wetland area at depths of 0–50 cm, and soil organic carbon (SOC), bulk density, and carbon stocks of soils for each land use type were calculated at 10 cm soil depth levels. Furthermore, disturbed soil samples were taken at two soil depths (0–20 cm and 20–40 cm), and the particle size distribution, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), aggregate stability and dispersion ratio (DR) properties of the soils were analyzed. Data were processed using ANOVA, Duncan’s test, and Pearson’s correlation analysis. The soil properties affected by the land-use change were SOC, carbon stock, pH, EC, aggregate stability, clay, silt, sand contents, and bulk density. SOC and carbon stocks were high in rangeland, marsh, and shrub land, while low in agriculture and drained lake areas. As the soil depth increased, SOC and carbon stock decreased. The organic carbon content of the soils exhibited positive relationships with aggregate stability, clay, and carbon stock, while it showed a negative correlation with bulk density, pH, and DR. The results showed that s drainage and conversion of the wetland caused a significant decrease in the carbon contents of the soils.
Vision-based periodic examination of the deterioration of stone monuments over time is labour and time intensive. Especially, in cases involving large-scale immovable cultural heritage, the workforce ...is considerably increased, along with the possibility of occurrence of errors. Any misdiagnoses in the deterioration may cause irreversible structural problems in monuments, and thus, it is necessary to develop alternative examination methods. Computer-vision methods represent an effective solution to eliminate both human errors and difficulties in the field. Therefore, this study aims to adopt the Mask R–CNN algorithm, which is a computer-vision method, to detect and map the deteriorations observed in the Gümüşler archaeological site and monastery (cracks, discontinuities, contour scaling, missing parts, biological colonization, presence of higher plants, deposits, efflorescence, and loss of fresco). First, 1740 images were collected from the site, and the model was trained by labelling the distortions in these images according to their types. Later, the model was tested on four outdoor and two indoor views. The developed model achieved an average precision ranging between 91.591% and 100%, and the mean average precision was 98.186%. These results demonstrated that the proposed algorithm can enable mapping to promptly and automatically detect the deterioration in large monuments.
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•The importance of determining types of deterioration in restoration applications.•Determination of stone deterioration with computer-vision.•Automatic deterioration map via Mask R–CNN.
