Nucleic acid hairpins provide a powerful model system for probing the formation of secondary structure. We report a systematic study of the kinetics and thermodynamics of the folding transition for ...individual DNA hairpins of varying stem length, loop length, and stem GC content. Folding was induced mechanically in a highresolution optical trap using a unique force clamp arrangement with fast response times. We measured 20 different hairpin sequences with quasi-random stem sequences that were 6-30 bp long, polythymidine loops that were 3-30 nt long, and stem GC content that ranged from 0% to 100%. For all hairpins studied, folding and unfolding were characterized by a single transition. From the force dependence of these rates, we determined the position and height of the energy barrier, finding that the transition state for duplex formation involves the formation of 1-2 bp next to the loop. By measuring unfolding energies spanning one order of magnitude, transition rates covering six orders of magnitude, and hairpin opening distances with subnanometer precision, our results define the essential features of the energy landscape for folding. We find quantitative agreement over the entire range of measurements with a hybrid landscape model that combines thermodynamic nearest-neighbor free energies and nanomechanical DNA stretching energies.
Nucleic acid hairpins provide a powerful model system for understanding macromolecular folding, with free-energy landscapes that can be readily manipulated by changing the hairpin sequence. The full ...shapes of energy landscapes for the reversible folding of DNA hairpins under controlled loads exerted by an optical force clamp were obtained by deconvolution from high-resolution, single-molecule trajectories. The locations and heights of the energy barriers for hairpin folding could be tuned by adjusting the number and location of G:C base pairs, and the presence and position of folding intermediates were controlled by introducing single-nucleotide mismatches.
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