Some infectious diseases, including COVID-19, can undergo airborne transmission. This may happen at close proximity, but as time indoors increases, infections can occur in shared room air despite ...distancing. We propose two indicators of infection risk for this situation, that is, relative risk parameter (H r) and risk parameter (H). They combine the key factors that control airborne disease transmission indoors: virus-containing aerosol generation rate, breathing flow rate, masking and its quality, ventilation and aerosol-removal rates, number of occupants, and duration of exposure. COVID-19 outbreaks show a clear trend that is consistent with airborne infection and enable recommendations to minimize transmission risk. Transmission in typical prepandemic indoor spaces is highly sensitive to mitigation efforts. Previous outbreaks of measles, influenza, and tuberculosis were also assessed. Measles outbreaks occur at much lower risk parameter values than COVID-19, while tuberculosis outbreaks are observed at higher risk parameter values. Because both diseases are accepted as airborne, the fact that COVID-19 is less contagious than measles does not rule out airborne transmission. It is important that future outbreak reports include information on masking, ventilation and aerosol-removal rates, number of occupants, and duration of exposure, to investigate airborne transmission.
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused untold disruption throughout the world. Understanding the mechanisms for transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 ...(SARS-CoV-2) is key to preventing further spread, but there is confusion over the meaning of ‘airborne’ whenever transmission is discussed. Scientific ambivalence originates from evidence published many years ago which has generated mythological beliefs that obscure current thinking. This article collates and explores some of the most commonly held dogmas on airborne transmission in order to stimulate revision of the science in the light of current evidence. Six ‘myths’ are presented, explained and ultimately refuted on the basis of recently published papers and expert opinion from previous work related to similar viruses. There is little doubt that SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted via a range of airborne particle sizes subject to all the usual ventilation parameters and human behaviour. Experts from specialties encompassing aerosol studies, ventilation, engineering, physics, virology and clinical medicine have joined together to produce this review to consolidate the evidence for airborne transmission mechanisms, and offer justification for modern strategies for prevention and control of COVID-19 in health care and the community.
The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed major gaps in our understanding of the transmission of viruses through the air. These gaps slowed recognition of airborne transmission of the disease, contributed to ...muddled public health policies and impeded clear messaging on how best to slow transmission of COVID-19. In particular, current recommendations have been based on four tenets: (i) respiratory disease transmission routes can be viewed mostly in a binary manner of 'droplets' versus 'aerosols'; (ii) this dichotomy depends on droplet size alone; (iii) the cut-off size between these routes of transmission is 5 µm; and (iv) there is a dichotomy in the distance at which transmission by each route is relevant. Yet, a relationship between these assertions is not supported by current scientific knowledge. Here, we revisit the historical foundation of these notions, and how they became entangled from the 1800s to today, with a complex interplay among various fields of science and medicine. This journey into the past highlights potential solutions for better collaboration and integration of scientific results into practice for building a more resilient society with more sound, far-sighted and effective public health policies.
Particles are resuspended from the floor by walking and are subject to turbulent transport in the human aerodynamic wake. These processes may generate a vertical concentration gradient of particles. ...To estimate the magnitude of turbulence generated by walking, we measured the velocity field in the wake from floor to ceiling at 10‐cm intervals with a sonic anemometer. The resulting eddy diffusion coefficients varied between 0.06 and 0.20 m2/s and were maximal at ~0.75–1 m above the floor, approximately the height of the swinging hand. We applied the eddy diffusion coefficients in an atmospheric transport model to predict concentrations of resuspended influenza virus as a function of the carrier particle size, height in the room, and relative humidity, which affects the resuspension rate coefficient and virus viability. Results indicated that the concentration of resuspended viruses at 1 m above the floor was up to 40% higher than at 2 m, depending on particle size. For exposure to total resuspended viruses, the difference at 1 vs. 2 m was 11–14%. It is possible that shorter people are exposed to higher concentrations of resuspended dust, including pathogens, although experimental evidence is needed to verify this proposition.
Within a time span of only a few months, the SARS-CoV-2 virus has managed to spread across the world. This virus can spread by close contact, which includes large droplet spray and inhalation of ...microscopic droplets, and by indirect contact via contaminated objects. While in most countries, supermarkets have remained open, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, authorities have ordered many other shops, restaurants, bars, music theaters and indoor sports centers to be closed. As part of COVID-19 (semi)lock-down exit strategies, many government authorities are now (May-June 2020) allowing a gradual re-opening, where sometimes indoor sport centers are last in line to be permitted to re-open. This technical note discusses the challenges in safely re-opening these facilities and the measures already suggested by others to partly tackle these challenges. It also elaborates three potential additional measures and based on these additional measures, it suggests the concept of a certificate of equivalence that could allow indoor sports centers with such a certificate to re-open safely and more rapidly. It also attempts to stimulate increased preparedness of indoor sports centers that should allow them to remain open safely during potential next waves of SARS-CoV-2 as well as future pandemics. It is concluded that fighting situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic and limiting economic damage requires increased collaboration and research by virologists, epidemiologists, microbiologists, aerosol scientists, building physicists, building services engineers and sports scientists.
Woodsmoke samples derived from the combustion of beech, oak, spruce, larch and softwood briquettes in a closed stove have been collected and analysed so as to derive chemical profiles for ambient ...particulate matter (PM) source apportionment studies, for example, by CMB modelling. Trace metals, soluble ions, carbon species total carbon (TC), elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC), anhydrosugars, polar and non-polar trace organics, cellulose and humic-like substances (HULIS) have been measured. The inorganic and most organic components were not significantly different for the different woods, so that one profile could be derived for CMB modelling. The anhydrosugar levoglucosan was present in high concentrations, 4–15% w/w, and for the mix of woods important for Austria, one conversion factor can be used to derive the mass of woodsmoke from the levoglucosan concentration in ambient air. Mannosan is also a major component, 0.3–4% w/w, which, taken together with the levoglucosan content, permits estimates to be made of the proportion of hard- and softwood smoke to ambient PM.
An Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (AMS) was deployed at the CENICA Supersite, during the Mexico City Metropolitan Area field study (MCMA-2003) from 31 March-4 May 2003 to investigate particle ...concentrations, sources, and processes. The AMS provides real time information on mass concentration and composition of the non-refractory species in particulate matter less than 1 µm (NR-PM1) with high time and size-resolution. In order to account for the refractory material in the aerosol, we also present estimates of Black Carbon (BC) using an aethalometer and an estimate of the aerosol soil component obtained from Proton-Induced X-ray Emission Spectrometry (PIXE) analysis of impactor substrates. Comparisons of AMS + BC + soil mass concentration with other collocated particle instruments (a LASAIR Optical Particle Counter, a PM2.5 Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM), and a PM2.5 DustTrak Aerosol Monitor) show that the AMS + BC + soil mass concentration is consistent with the total PM2.5 mass concentration during MCMA-2003 within the combined uncertainties. In Mexico City, the organic fraction of the estimated PM2.5 at CENICA represents, on average, 54.6% (standard deviation σ=10%) of the mass, with the rest consisting of inorganic compounds (mainly ammonium nitrate and sulfate/ammonium salts), BC, and soil. Inorganic compounds represent 27.5% of PM2.5 (σ=10%); BC mass concentration is about 11% (σ=4%); while soil represents about 6.9% (σ=4%). Size distributions are presented for the AMS species; they show an accumulation mode that contains mainly oxygenated organic and secondary inorganic compounds. The organic size distributions also contain a small organic particle mode that is likely indicative of fresh traffic emissions; small particle modes exist for the inorganic species as well. Evidence suggests that the organic and inorganic species are not always internally mixed, especially in the small modes. The aerosol seems to be neutralized most of the time; however, there were some periods when there was not enough ammonium to completely neutralize the nitrate, chloride and sulfate present. The diurnal cycle and size distributions of nitrate suggest local photochemical production. On the other hand, sulfate appears to be produced on a regional scale. There are indications of new particle formation and growth events when concentrations of SO2 were high. Although the sources of chloride are not clear, this species seems to condense as ammonium chloride early in the morning and to evaporate as the temperature increases and RH decreases. The total and speciated mass concentrations and diurnal cycles measured during MCMA-2003 are similar to measurements during a previous field campaign at a nearby location.
Fungal spores are ubiquitous components of atmospheric aerosols and are therefore also contributors to the organic carbon (OC) component and to the mass of PM
10 (PM—particulate matter) aerosols. In ...this study we use spore counts and an experimentally derived factor of 13
pg C and of 33
pg fresh weight per spore for assessing quantitatively the contribution to OC and PM
10. The concentrations of airborne fungal spores were determined at a suburban (Schafberg) and a traffic-dominated urban site (Rinnböckstrasse) in Vienna, Austria, during spring and summer. Fungal spores OC ranged from 22 to 677
ng
m
−3 with a summer mean value of around 350
ng
m
−3 at the suburban site and 300
ng
m
−3 at the urban traffic site. At the suburban site fungal spores contributed on average 6% in spring and 14% in summer to aerosol OC mass concentration. At the traffic-dominated site fungal spores accounted for 2% of OC in spring and for 8% in summer. The fungal contribution to PM
10 was also notable and amounted to 3% and 7% at the suburban and to 1% and 4% at the urban site in spring and summer, respectively. Impactor measurements of OC at the suburban site showed that in summer fungal spores were predominant contributors to the coarse aerosol OC, and accounted on average for 60% of the OC in the PM
2−10 fraction. Fungal spores thus can be regarded as main components to PM
10, total OC and, most importantly, coarse OC even in urban areas.
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