Aims. We present a 0.̋5-resolution 17.7 μm image of the red supergiant Antares. Our aim is to study the structure of the circumstellar envelope in detail. Methods. Antares was observed at 17.7 μm ...with the VLT mid-infrared instrument VISIR. Taking advantage of the BURST mode, in which a large number of short exposure frames are taken, we obtained a diffraction-limited image with a spatial resolution of 0.̋5. Results. The VISIR image shows six clumpy dust clouds located at 0.̋8–1.̋8 (43–96 R⋆ = 136–306 AU) away from the star. We also detected compact emission within a radius of 0.̋5 around the star. Comparison of our VISIR image taken in 2010 and the 20.8 μm image taken in 1998 with the Keck Telescope reveals the outward motions of four dust clumps. The proper motions of these dust clumps (with respect to the central star) amount to 0.̋2–0.̋6 in 12 years. This translates into expansion velocities (projected onto the plane of the sky) of 13–40 km s-1 with an uncertainty of ± 7 km s-1. The inner compact emission seen in the 2010 VISIR image is presumably newly formed dust, because it is not detected in the image taken in 1998. If we assume that the dust is ejected in 1998, the expansion velocity is estimated to be 34 km s-1, in agreement with the velocity of the outward motions of the clumpy dust clouds. The mass of the dust clouds is estimated to be (3−6) × 10-9 M⊙. These values are lower by a factor of 3–7 than the amount of dust ejected in one year estimated from the (gas+dust) mass-loss rate of 2 × 10-6 M⊙ yr-1, suggesting that the continuous mass loss is superimposed on the clumpy dust cloud ejection. Conclusions. The clumpy dust envelope detected in the 17.7 μm diffraction-limited image is similar to the clumpy or asymmetric circumstellar environment of other red supergiants. The velocities of the dust clumps cannot be explained by a simple accelerating outflow, implying the possible random nature of the dust cloud ejection mechanism.
Context. The mass-loss mechanism in red giants and red supergiants is not yet understood well. The SiO fundamental lines near 8 μm are potentially useful for probing the outer atmosphere, which is ...essential for clarifying the mass-loss mechanism. However, these lines have been little explored until now. Aims. We present high spectral resolution spectroscopic observations of the SiO fundamental lines near 8.1 μm in 16 bright red giants and red supergiants. Our sample consists of seven normal (i.e., non-Mira) K–M giants (from K1.5 to M6.5), three Mira stars, three optically bright red supergiants, two dusty red supergiants, and the enigmatic object GCIRS3 near the Galactic center. Methods. Our program stars were observed between 8.088 μm and 8.112 μm with a spectral resolution of 30 000 using VLT/VISIR. Results. We detected SiO fundamental lines in all of our program stars except for GCIRS3. The SiO lines in normal K and M giants as well as optically bright (i.e., not dusty) red supergiants do not show P-Cyg profiles or blueshifts, which means the absence of systematic outflows in the SiO line forming region. We detected P-Cyg profiles in the SiO lines in the dusty red supergiants VY CMa and VX Sgr, with the latter object being a new detection. These SiO lines originate in the outflowing gas with the thermal dust continuum emission seen as the background. The outflow velocities of the SiO line forming region in VY CMa and VX Sgr are estimated to be 27 km s-1 and 17 km s-1, respectively. We derived basic stellar parameters (effective temperature, surface gravity, luminosity, and mass) for the normal K–M giants and optically bright red supergiants in our sample and compared the observed VISIR spectra with synthetic spectra predicted from MARCS photospheric models. Most of the SiO lines observed in the program stars warmer than ~3400 K are reasonably reproduced by the MARCS models, which allowed us to estimate the silicon abundance as well as the 28Si/29Si and 28Si/30Si ratios. However, we detected possible absorption excess in some SiO lines. Moreover, the SiO lines in the cooler red giants and red supergiant cannot be explained by the MARCS models at all, even if the dust emission is taken into account. This disagreement may be a signature of the dense, extended molecular outer atmosphere.
Context. Low- and intermediate-mass stars on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) are known to be prevalent dust providers to galaxies, replenishing the surrounding medium with molecules and dust ...grains. However, the mechanisms responsible for the formation and acceleration of dust in the cool extended atmospheres of AGB stars are still open to debate. Aims. We present visible polarimetric imaging observations of the oxygen-rich AGB star IK Tau obtained with the high-resolution polarimetric imager VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL at post-maximum light (phase 0.27) as well as high-spectral resolution long-baseline interferometric observations with the AMBER instrument at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). We aim to spatially resolve the dust and molecule formation regions, and to investigate their physical and chemical properties within a few stellar radii of IK Tau. Methods. IK Tau was observed with VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL at three wavelengths in the pseudo-continuum (645, 748, and 820 nm), in the Hα line at 656.3 nm, and in the TiO band at 717 nm. The VLTI/AMBER observations were carried out in the wavelength region of the CO first overtone lines near 2.3 μm with a spectral resolution of 12 000. Results. The excellent polarimetric imaging capabilities of SPHERE-ZIMPOL have allowed us to spatially resolve clumpy dust clouds at 20–50 mas from the central star, which corresponds to 2–5 R⋆ when combined with a central star’s angular diameter of 20.7 ± 1.53 mas measured with VLTI/AMBER. The diffuse, asymmetric dust emission extends out to ~73 R⋆. We find that the TiO emission extends to 150 mas (15 R⋆). The AMBER data in the individual CO lines also suggest a molecular outer atmosphere extending to ~1.5 R⋆. The results of our 2D Monte Carlo radiative transfer modelling of dust clumps suggest that the polarized intensity and degree of linear polarization can be reasonably explained by small-sized (0.1 μm) grains of Al2O3, MgSiO3, or Mg2SiO4 in an optically thin shell (τ550 nm = 0.5 ± 0.1) with an inner and outer boundary radius of 3.5 R⋆ and ≳25 R⋆, respectively. The observed clumpy structures can be reproduced by a density enhancement of a factor of 3.0 ± 0.5. However, the model still predicts the total intensity profiles to be too narrow compared to the observed data, which may be due to the TiO emission and/or grains other than homogeneous, filled spheres. Conclusions. IK Tau’s mass-loss rate is 20–50 times higher than the previously studied AGB stars W Hya, R Dor, and o Cet. Nevertheless, our observations of IK Tau revealed that clumpy dust formation occurs close to the star as seen in those low mass-rate AGB stars.
Aims. We present a high-spatial and high-spectral resolution observation of the well-studied K giant Aldebaran with AMBER at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). Our aim is to spatially ...resolve the outer atmosphere (so-called MOLsphere) in individual CO first overtone lines and derive its physical properties, which are important for understanding the mass-loss mechanism in normal (i.e., non-Mira) K−M giants. Methods. Aldebaran was observed between 2.28 and 2.31 μm with a projected baseline length of 10.4 m and a spectral resolution of 12 000. Results. The uniform-disk diameter observed in the CO first overtone lines is 20−35% larger than is measured in the continuum. We have also detected a signature of inhomogeneities in the CO-line-forming region on a spatial scale of ~45 mas, which is more than twice as large as the angular diameter of the star itself. While the MARCS photospheric model reproduces the observed spectrum well, the angular size in the CO lines predicted by the MARCS model is significantly smaller than observed. This is because the MARCS model with the parameters of Aldebaran has a geometrical extension of only ~2% (with respect to the stellar radius). The observed spectrum and interferometric data in the CO lines can be simultaneously reproduced by placing an additional CO layer above the MARCS photosphere. This CO layer is extended to 2.5 ± 0.3 R⋆ with CO column densities of 5 × 1019−2 × 1020 cm-2 and a temperature of 1500 ± 200 K. Conclusions. The high spectral resolution of AMBER has enabled us to spatially resolve the inhomogeneous, extended outer atmosphere (MOLsphere) in the individual CO lines for the first time in a K giant. Our modeling of the MOLsphere of Aldebaran suggests a rather small gradient in the temperature distribution above the photosphere up to 2−3 R⋆.
Red supergiant stars represent a late stage of the evolution of stars more massive than about nine solar masses, in which they develop complex, multi-component atmospheres. Bright spots have been ...detected in the atmosphere of red supergiants using interferometric imaging. Above the photosphere of a red supergiant, the molecular outer atmosphere extends up to about two stellar radii. Furthermore, the hot chromosphere (5,000 to 8,000 kelvin) and cool gas (less than 3,500 kelvin) of a red supergiant coexist at about three stellar radii. The dynamics of such complex atmospheres has been probed by ultraviolet and optical spectroscopy. The most direct approach, however, is to measure the velocity of gas at each position over the image of stars as in observations of the Sun. Here we report the mapping of the velocity field over the surface and atmosphere of the nearby red supergiant Antares. The two-dimensional velocity field map obtained from our near-infrared spectro-interferometric imaging reveals vigorous upwelling and downdrafting motions of several huge gas clumps at velocities ranging from about -20 to +20 kilometres per second in the atmosphere, which extends out to about 1.7 stellar radii. Convection alone cannot explain the observed turbulent motions and atmospheric extension, suggesting that an unidentified process is operating in the extended atmosphere.
Context. Dust formation is thought to play an important role in the mass loss from stars at the asymptotic giant branch (AGB); however, where and how dust forms is still open to debate. Aims. We ...present visible polarimetric imaging observations of the well-studied AGB star W Hya taken with VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL as well as high spectral resolution long-baseline interferometric observations taken with the AMBER instrument at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). Our goal is to spatially resolve the dust and molecule formation region within a few stellar radii. Methods. We observed W Hya with VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL at three wavelengths in the continuum (645, 748, and 820 nm), in the Hα line at 656.3 nm, and in the TiO band at 717 nm. The VLTI/AMBER observations were carried out in the wavelength region of the CO first overtone lines near 2.3 μm with a spectral resolution of 12000. Results. Taking advantage of the polarimetric imaging capability of SPHERE-ZIMPOL combined with the superb adaptive optics performance, we succeeded in spatially resolving three clumpy dust clouds located at ~50 mas (~2 R⋆) from the central star, revealing dust formation very close to the star. The AMBER data in the individual CO lines suggest a molecular outer atmosphere extending to ~3 R⋆. Furthermore, the SPHERE-ZIMPOL image taken over the Hα line shows emission with a radius of up to ~160 mas (~7 R⋆). We found that dust, molecular gas, and Hα-emitting hot gas coexist within 2–3 R⋆. Our modeling suggests that the observed polarized intensity maps can reasonably be explained by large (0.4–0.5 μm) grains of Al2O3, Mg2SiO4, or MgSiO3 in an optically thin shell (τ550nm = 0.1 ± 0.02) with an inner and outer boundary radius of 1.9–2.0 R⋆ and 3 ± 0.5R⋆, respectively. The observed clumpy structure can be reproduced by a density enhancement of a factor of 4 ± 1. Conclusions. The grain size derived from our modeling of the SPHERE-ZIMPOL polarimetric images is consistent with the prediction of the hydrodynamical models for the mass loss driven by the scattering due to micron-sized grains. The detection of the clumpy dust clouds close to the star lends support to the dust formation induced by pulsation and large convective cells as predicted by the 3D simulations for AGB stars.
We first present spatially resolved ALMA and VLA continuum observations of the early-M red supergiant Antares to search for the presence of a chromosphere at radio wavelengths. We resolve the ...free-free emission of the Antares atmosphere at 11 unique wavelengths between 0.7 mm (ALMA band 8) and 10 cm (VLA S band). The projected angular diameter is found to continually increase with increasing wavelength, from a low of 50.7 mas at 0.7 mm up to a diameter of 431 mas at 10 cm, which corresponds to 1.35 and 11.6 times the photospheric angular diameter, respectively. All four ALMA measurements show that the shape of the atmosphere is elongated, with a flattening of 15% at a similar position angle. The disk-averaged gas temperature of the atmosphere initially rises from a value of 2700 K at 1.35
R
⋆
(i.e., 0.35
R
⋆
above the photosphere) to a peak value of 3800 K at ∼2.5
R
⋆
, after which it then more gradually decreases to 1650 K at 11.6
R
⋆
. The rise in gas temperature between 1.35
R
⋆
and ∼2.5
R
⋆
is evidence for a chromospheric temperature rise above the photosphere of a red supergiant. We detect a clear change in the spectral index across the sampled wavelength range, with the flux density
S
ν
∝
ν
1.42
between 0.7 mm and 1.4 cm, which we associate with chromosphere-dominated emission, while the flux density
S
ν
∝
ν
0.8
between 4.3 cm and 10 cm, which we associate with wind-dominated emission. We show that the Antares MOLsphere is transparent at our observed wavelengths, and the lukewarm chromosphere that we detect is therefore real and not just an average of the cool MOLsphere and hot ultraviolet emitting gas. We then perform nonlocal thermal equilibrium modeling of the far-ultraviolet radiation field of another early-M red supergiant, Betelgeuse, and find that an additional hot (i.e., > 7000 K) chromospheric photoionization component with a much smaller filling factor must also exist throughout the chromospheres of these stars.
Context. Asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars are one of the major sources of dust in the universe. The formation of molecules and dust grains and their subsequent expulsion into the interstellar ...medium via strong stellar winds is under intense investigation. This is in particular true for oxygen-rich stars, for which the path of dust formation has remained unclear. Aims. We conducted spatially and spectrally resolved mid-infrared multi-epoch interferometric observations to investigate the dust formation process in the extended atmospheres of oxygen-rich AGB stars. Methods. We observed the Mira variable AGB stars S Ori, GX Mon, and R Cnc between February 2006 and March 2009 with the MIDI instrument at the VLT interferometer. We compared the data to radiative transfer models of the dust shells, where the central stellar intensity profiles were described by dust-free dynamic model atmospheres. We used Al2O3 and warm silicate grains, following earlier studies in the literature. Results. Our S Ori and R Cnc data could be well described by an Al2O3 dust shell alone, and our GX Mon data by a mix of an Al2O3 and a silicate shell. The best-fit parameters for S Ori and R Cnc included photospheric angular diameters ΘPhot of 9.7 ± 1.0 mas and 12.3 ± 1.0 mas, optical depths τV(Al2O3) of 1.5 ± 0.5 and 1.35 ± 0.2, and inner radii Rin of 1.9 ± 0.3 RPhot and 2.2 ± 0.3 RPhot, respectively. Best-fit parameters for GX Mon were ΘPhot = 8.7 ± 1.3 mas, τV(Al2O3) = 1.9 ± 0.6, Rin(Al2O3) = 2.1 ± 0.3 RPhot, τV(silicate)= 3.2 ± 0.5, and Rin(silicate)= 4.6 ± 0.2 RPhot. Our data did not show evidence of intra-cycle and cycle-to-cycle variability or of asymmetries within the error-bars and within the limits of our baseline and phase coverage. Conclusions. Our model fits constrain the chemical composition and the inner boundary radii of the dust shells, as well as the photospheric angular diameters. Our interferometric results are consistent with Al2O3 grains condensing close to the stellar surface at about 2 stellar radii, co-located with the extended atmosphere and SiO maser emission, and warm silicate grains at larger distances of about 4–5 stellar radii. We verified that the number densities of aluminum can match that of the best-fit Al2O3 dust shell near the inner dust radius in sufficiently extended atmospheres, confirming that Al2O3 grains can be seed particles for the further dust condensation. Together with literature data of the mass-loss rates, our sample is consistent with a hypothesis that stars with low mass-loss rates form primarily dust that preserves the spectral properties of Al2O3, and stars with higher mass-loss rate form dust with properties of warm silicates.
Recent observations of NGC 1068 and other AGN support the idea of a geometrically and optically thick dust torus surrounding the central supermassive black hole and accretion disk of AGN. In ...type 2 AGN, the torus is seen roughly edge-on, leading to obscuration of the central radiation source and a silicate absorption feature near $10~{\rm\mu m}$. While most of the current torus models distribute the dust smoothly, there is growing evidence that the dust must be arranged in clouds. We describe a new method for modeling near- and mid-infrared emission of 3-dimensional clumpy tori using Monte Carlo simulations. We calculate the radiation fields of individual clouds at various distances from the AGN and distribute these clouds within the torus region. The properties of the individual clouds and their distribution within the torus are determined from a theoretical approach of self-gravitating clouds close to the shear limit in a gravitational potential. We demonstrate that clumpiness in AGN tori can overcome the problem of over-pronounced silicate features. Finally, we present model calculations for the prototypical Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1068 and compare them to recent high-resolution measurements. Our model is able to reproduce both the SED and the interferometric observations of NGC 1068 in the near- and mid-infrared.
We present a possible interpretation for the increase of the angular diameter of the Mira variables o Cet, R Leo, and χ Cyg from the K band to the 11 μm region revealed by the recent interferometric ...observations using narrow bandpasses where no salient spectral feature is present (Weiner et al. CITE,b). A simple two-layer model consisting of hot and cool H2O layers for the warm water vapor envelope, whose presence in Mira variables was revealed by previous spectroscopic observations, can reproduce the angular diameters observed with Infrared Spatial Interferometer as well as the high-resolution TEXES spectra obtained in the 11 μm region. The warm water vapor layers are optically thick in the lines, and therefore, strong absorption due to H2O can be expected from such a dense water vapor envelope. However, the absorption lines are filled in by emission from the extended part of the envelope, and this results in the high-resolution 11 μm spectra which exhibit only weak, fine spectral features, masking the spectroscopic evidences of the dense, warm water vapor envelope. On the other hand, the presence of the warm water vapor envelope manifests itself as the larger angular diameters in the 11 μm region as compared to those measured in the near-infrared. Furthermore, comparison of the visibilities predicted in the near-infrared (1.5–3.8 μm) with observational results available in the literature demonstrates that our two-layer model for the warm water vapor envelope can also reproduce the observed near-infrared visibilities and angular diameters, and suggests that the wavelength dependence of the angular size of Mira variables in the infrared largely reflects the H2O opacity. The radii of the hot H2O layers in the three Mira variables are derived to be 1.5–1.7 $R_{\star}$ with temperatures of 1800–2000 K and H2O column densities of $(1{-}5)$ $\times$ 1021 cm-2, while the radii of the cool H2O layers are derived to be 2.2–2.5 $R_{\star}$ with temperatures of 1200–1400 K and H2O column densities of $(1{-}7)$ $\times$ 1021 cm-2.
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