The research illustrated in this article aimed at identifying a good standard methodology to survey very narrow spaces during 3D investigation of Cultural Heritage. It is an important topic in ...today’s era of BIM modelling applied to Cultural Heritage. Spaces like staircases, corridors and passages are very common in the architectural or archaeological fields, and obtaining a 3D-oriented survey of those areas can be a very complex task when completeness of the model and high precision are requested. Photogrammetry appears to be the most promising solution in terms of versatility and manoeuvrability also considering the quality of the required data. Fisheye lenses were studied and tested in depth because of their significant advantage in the field of view if compared with rectilinear lenses. This advantage alone can be crucial to reduce the total amount of photos and, as a consequence, to obtain manageable data, to simplify the survey phase and to significantly reduce the elaboration time. In order to overcome the main issue that arise when using fisheye lenses, which is the lack of rules that can be employed to design the survey, a general mathematical formulation to precisely estimate the GSD (Ground Sampling Distance) for every optical projection is presented here. A complete survey of a real complex case study was performed in order to test and stress the proposed methodology, and to handle a fisheye-based survey from beginning to end: the photogrammetric survey of the Minguzzi Staircase. It is a complex service spiral-staircase located in the Duomo di Milano with a total height of 25 meters and characterized by a narrow walkable space about 70 centimetres wide.
In the architectural survey field, there has been the spread of a vast number of automated techniques. However, it is important to underline the gap that exists between the technical specification ...sheet of a particular instrument and its usability, accuracy and level of automation reachable in real cases scenario, especially speaking about Cultural Heritage (CH) field. In fact, even if the technical specifications (range, accuracy and field of view) are known for each instrument, their functioning and features are influenced by the environment, shape and materials of the object. The results depend more on how techniques are employed than the nominal specifications of the instruments. The aim of this article is to evaluate the real usability, for the 1:50 architectonic restitution scale, of common and not so common survey techniques applied to the complex scenario of dark, intricate and narrow spaces such as service areas, corridors and stairs of Milan’s cathedral indoors. Tests have shown that the quality of the results is strongly affected by side-issues like the impossibility of following the theoretical ideal methodology when survey such spaces. The tested instruments are: the laser scanner Leica C10, the GeoSLAM ZEB1, the DOT DPI 8 and two photogrammetric setups, a full frame camera with a fisheye lens and the NCTech iSTAR, a panoramic camera. Each instrument presents advantages and limits concerning both the sensors themselves and the acquisition phase.
Narrow spaces and passages are not a rare encounter in cultural heritage, the shape and extension of those areas place a serious challenge on any techniques one may choose to survey their 3D ...geometry. Especially on techniques that make use of stationary instrumentation like terrestrial laser scanning. The ratio between space extension and cross section width of many corridors and staircases can easily lead to distortions/drift of the 3D reconstruction because of the problem of propagation of uncertainty. This paper investigates the use of fisheye photogrammetry to produce the 3D reconstruction of such spaces and presents some tests to contain the degree of freedom of the photogrammetric network, thereby containing the drift of long data set as well. The idea is that of employing a multi-camera system composed of several fisheye cameras and to implement distances and relative orientation constraints, as well as the pre-calibration of the internal parameters for each camera, within the bundle adjustment. For the beginning of this investigation, we used the NCTech iSTAR panoramic camera as a rigid multi-camera system. The case study of the Amedeo Spire of the Milan Cathedral, that encloses a spiral staircase, is the stage for all the tests. Comparisons have been made between the results obtained with the multi-camera configuration, the auto-stitched equirectangular images and a data set obtained with a monocular fisheye configuration using a full frame DSLR. Results show improved accuracy, down to millimetres, using a rigidly constrained multi-camera.
The impact of cultivar, harvest time, and crop season on olive fruit characteristics and olive oil quality and minor components composition is assessed for super‐high‐density “Arbequina”, “Arbosana”, ...and “Koroneiki” in California, United States, during 2016, 2017, and 2018. Fruit oil content reaches a plateau in November for “Arbequina” and “Arbosana,” while the accumulation rate keeps constant until early December for “Koroneiki.” Free fatty acids, diacylglycerols, pyropheophytins, and ΔK are not affected by any of the considered factors. Peroxide value, K232, and K270 decreases with harvest time. Chlorophylls content decreases with harvest time, more rapidly in “Arbequina” and “Arbosana” than in “Koroneiki”. Cultivar is the main factor affecting the fatty acid profile. “Koroneiki” has the highest oleic acid content, followed by “Arbosana” and “Arbequina.” Phenolic and volatile compounds are profoundly affected by cultivars and crop seasons, suggesting the relevance of these factors on the sensory and nutritional properties of virgin olive oil from super‐high‐density cultivars. Stepwise linear discriminant analysis allows selecting suitable markers among fatty acids, phenolic, and volatile compounds for cultivar, crop season, and harvest time discrimination.
Practical Application: This paper constitutes the first report of a multiyear study considering quality and composition in bioactive compounds of super‐high‐density “Arbequina,” “Arbosana,” and “Koroneiki,” planted in California, USA. This information helps processors understand the differences in oil made from the most common super‐high‐density cultivars along harvest times and for growers to make planting and harvesting decisions.
Olive oil production is increasing outside the Mediterranean Basin. In this study, olive fruit characteristics, olive oil quality, and chemical composition during maturation are described for the three most common super‐high‐density cultivars, “Arbequina,” “Arbosana,” and “Koroneiki,” planted in Central Valley region of California.
Pistachio is an economically important nut crop in California. Since temperature variations among geographical locations can influence biochemical processes during fruit development, it is of great ...relevance to understand the impact of growing area over the components that define the nutritional and sensory characteristics of pistachio nuts. Changes in moisture, fat content, fatty acid composition and volatile terpenes were studied during kernel development for “Kerman” and “Golden Hills” varieties in two different California Central Valley microclimates, Lost Hills and Parlier. Moisture content decreased from July to September for both cultivars at both locations. Kerman had a higher moisture content at both locations compared with Golden Hills. Harvest time affected fat content only for Kerman, where the values increased drastically from 21‐July to 4‐Aug, then remained constant. Golden Hills’ fat content remained constant during the period of the study. The main fatty acid in pistachio oil is oleic acid (46% to 59%), followed by linoleic acid (26% to 36%) and palmitic acid (11% to 16%). C16:0, C16:1, C18:2, and C18:3 decreased with harvest time, while C18:1 increased. α‐Pinene was the most concentrated volatile among the cultivars and locations. It decreased with harvest time for both cultivars at both locations, ranging from 105 to 2464 mg/kg. At harvest, Golden Hills and Kerman at Parlier both had higher concentrations of α‐pinene than the two cultivars at Lost Hills. Our results demonstrate that microclimate affects biosynthesis of fatty acids and terpenes in pistachio kernels, the main compounds responsible for pistachio nutritional and sensory characteristics.
•LC/GC–MS multi-class methods give a snapshot view of the minor fraction of olive oil.•Optimized sample treatment isolates compounds in a wide polarity/volatility range.•40 analytes belonging to six ...diverse chemical classes are determined in a single run.•The emergence of multi-class methods increases throughput and reduces cost.
Several analytical methods are available to evaluate virgin olive oil (VOO) minor compounds; however, multi-class methodologies are yet rarely studied. Herewith, LC-MS and GC–MS platforms were used to develop two methods capable of simultaneously determine more than 40 compounds belonging to different VOO minor chemical classes within a single run. A non-selective and highly efficient liquid-liquid extraction protocol was optimized for VOO minor components isolation. The separation and detection conditions were adjusted for determining phenolic and triterpenic compounds, free fatty acids and tocopherols by LC-MS, plus sterols and hydrocarbons by GC–MS. Chromatographic analysis times were 31 and 50 min, respectively. A comparative assessment of both methods in terms of analytical performance, easiness, cost and adequacy to the analysis of each class was carried out. The emergence of this kind of multi-class analytical methodologies greatly increases throughput and reduces cost, while avoiding the complexity and redundancy of single-chemical class determinations.
Crushing of the olive fruit is the first operation for olive oil extraction. The hammer mill is one of the most popular devices used in modern facilities due to its easy maintenance and high product ...output. The effect of hammer mill rotor speed and sieve design, including screen size and screen open area on extraction yield, overall quality and minor component composition, is evaluated at the laboratory scale. Quality parameters such as free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), and UV absorbances (K232, K270, and ΔK) are unaltered by crushing parameters. Extraction efficiency, chlorophylls content, total phenol content, 3,4‐DHPEA‐EDA, and p‐HPEA‐EDA increase with faster hammer mill rotor speed and smaller screen size. Volatiles (E)‐2‐hexenal, hexanal, 1,5‐hexadiene‐(3,4)‐diethyl, 3‐ethyl‐1,5‐octadiene, and (E)‐2‐hexenol are only affected by screen size. Screen open area is found to be a relevant factor regarding extraction efficiency, chlorophylls, total, and individual phenols as well as the volatile compounds 1,5‐hexadiene (3,4)‐diethyl, 3‐ethyl‐1,5‐octadiene, hexanal, and (E)‐2‐hexenal.
Practical Application: It is found that screen open area is a relevant factor regarding extraction efficiency, chlorophylls, total and individual phenols and volatile compounds, in addition to the screen size and rotor speed. This is useful information for millers who are interested in optimizing extraction efficiency as well as the minor compounds of extra virgin olive oil.
Hammer mill sieve design impacts extraction efficiency, chlorophylls, total and individual phenols, and the volatile compounds during laboratory‐scale extraction of olive oil.
Hammer mill sieve design impacts extraction efficiency, chlorophylls, total and individual phenols, and the volatile compounds during laboratory‐scale extraction of olive oil.
•Effect of hammer crusher rotor speed was studied during continuous olive oil extraction.•Rotor speed increased extraction efficiency, phenolic and triterpenic compounds content in extra virgin olive ...oil.•FFA, PV, UV absorbances, DAGs and PPP were not affected by changes in hammer mill rotor speed.•Pungency increased with hammer mill rotor speed.•Hammer mill rotor speed may be used to tailor minor components during industrial olive oil extraction.
Crushing is a key step during olive oil extraction. Among commercial crushers, the hammer mill is the most widely used due to its robustness and high throughput. In the present work, the impact of hammer mill rotor speed on extraction yield and overall quality of super-high-density Arbosana olive oils were assessed in an industrial facility. Our results show that increasing the rotor speed from 2400rpm to 3600rpm led to a rise in oil yield of 1.2%, while conserving quality parameters. Sensory analysis showed more pungency with increased rotation speed, while others attributes were unaffected. Volatile compounds showed little variation with the differences in crusher speed; however, total phenols content, two relevant secoiridoids, and triterpenoids levels increased with rotor speed. Hammer mill rotor speed is a processing variable that can be tuned to increase the extraction efficiency and modulate the chemical composition of extra virgin olive oil.
Moisture and fat content, fatty acid profile, and volatile terpenes were measured for the first time for ‘Kalehghouchi’, ‘Pete 1’, and ‘Lost Hills’ pistachios grown at two California microclimates: ...Lost Hills and Parlier. ‘Kalehghouchi’ had the highest moisture content, followed by ‘Pete 1’ and ‘Lost Hills’, respectively. While the moisture content of ‘Kalehghouchi’ was not significantly affected by location, it was lower for ‘Pete 1’ grown at Parlier (40.8 vs. 40.8 g/100 g) and higher for ‘Lost Hill’ grown there (48.2 vs. 45.2 g/100 g). ‘Pete 1’ grown at the Parlier site had a higher fat content compared with ‘Lost Hills’ (47.7 vs. 43.0 g/100 g). ‘Kalehghouchi’ had a lower fat content at Parlier compared with Lost Hills (42.0 vs. 44.9 g/100 g), and ‘Lost Hills’ was unaffected by location. The main fatty acid measured in the pistachio samples was oleic acid (52% to 58%), followed by linoleic (26% to 33%) and palmitic acids (11% to 13%). While oleic acid content of ‘Lost Hills’ and ‘Kalehghouchi’ was higher for pistachios grown in Parlier, no impact of location was observed for ‘Pete 1’. The fatty acid profiles of all three cultivars appeared to be more dependent on genotype and less affected by microclimate. α-pinene (95–1682 ng/kg), limonene (37–741 ng/kg), and α-terpinolene (1–368 ng/kg) were the most abundant volatiles among all the cultivars and locations. Microclimate was the primary factor in determining volatile terpenes concentration in pistachio kernels.
The influence of hammer mill screen size (4.5 and 8.5 mm) and enzyme addition (control and 500 ppm) on olive fruit cell wall breakdown and its consequences in terms of oil recovery and the phenolic ...content of olive oil was studied at the laboratory scale for “Arbequina” and “Koroneiki” at two different maturities. Water recovery and water-soluble carbohydrates in olive paste after malaxation were measured as an indicator of cell wall breakdown. Smaller screen size and enzymes increase oil recovery for Arbequina with a maturity index of 1.6 (6.3–6.6%); and for Koroneiki at a maturity index of 0.2 (15.0–38%) and 2.6 (1.3–4.3%). For both cultivars, the increase in oil recovery is larger in green fruits compared to more ripe fruit. Water recovery and water-soluble carbohydrates increase with small screen size and the enzyme treatments, even when no increment in oil recovery is observed. The water recovery range was 143–239% for Arbequina and 150–262% for Koroneiki; water-soluble carbohydrate range was 1.8–12.7 g/kg for Arbequina and 0.5–5.4 g/kg for Koroneiki. In general, smaller hammer mill screen size and enzymes increase total phenols in the oil, with a larger difference between control and treatment for green fruit than for the ripe fruit. For Arbequina, increases in total phenol content were in the range of 45–60 and 5–20% at maturity index 1.6 and 3.3, respectively. For Koroneiki, the increases were in the range of 31–121 and 7–9% at maturity index 0.2 and 2.6, respectively. Application of cell wall-degrading enzymes improves the cell wall breakdown caused by hammer mill, leading to higher oil recovery and total phenol content. The magnitude of the effect depends on the cultivar and olive fruit maturity.
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