Despite the widely held view that a metaphysical reflection on morality and fundamental principles does not help much, the goal of the article is to shed light on the source of moral discourse that ...necessarily begins with a metaphysical analysis of human acts. The method used by the author in the analysis of the act is analytical-ontological, and, moreover, it is shown to be the key one here. Thus, the first part of the analysis has provided great insights that undeniably reveal that human acts can be classified into two basic groups: the so-called transient (transitive) actions on the one side, and immanent (inner) on the other side. The fundamental characteristic of both types of actions, or acts, is change, whether it is singing, drawing, swimming (transient) or thinking, wanting, anger (immanent). The above examples show that one state of reality has moved or changed to another. The presented analysis served as the background for reflection on the concepts of sin and guilt, which through their complexity and quality necessarily fall into one of the presented types of action. Murder, theft, and adultery as transient, and hatred, greed, and lust as immanent transgressions, i.e. sins, also have as a consequence – as well as actions in general – a change, especially in the internal and then, consequently, also in the external area. The experience of sin is necessarily linked with the experience of guilt. The article, therefore, ends with a reflection on the phenomenology of guilt as an internal act. At the beginning it manifests itself as taking responsibility and, in the end, as repentance, which together with forgiveness, ultimately gives full meaning to guilt.
Duh i obrazovanje Radić, Stjepan
Filozofska istraživanja,
01/2022, Letnik:
41, Številka:
4
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Jedna je od temeljnih čovjekovih odrednica ta da je obrazovljivo biće. Razlog tomu filozofijska tradicija nalazi u njegovoj duhovnoj duši. Za Humboldta je i njegovu obnovu sveučilišta, primjerice, ...duša osnova ovoga procesa. Suvremena filozofija obrazovanja te poglavito pedagogija i njoj srodne znanosti, međutim, (potpuno) izbjegavaju govor o duši s obzirom na odgoj, a osobito s obzirom na obrazovanje. To nas dovodi do središnje teze članka, koju sažimamo u sljedećem: obrazovanje se niti može, niti smije svesti samo na usvajanje znanja i sposobnosti, tj. vještina u vidu pukog osposobljavanja, već se mora vratiti svojim najdubljim osnovama koje se ujedno mogu promotriti i kao temeljne odrednice, perspektive obrazovanja uopće: otvaranjem prema cjelini svijeta, duša (osoba) u obrazovanju prispijeva k samoj sebi. Obrazovanje se ovim, međutim, niti svodi isključivo na teorijsko-spekulativni vid usvajanja i »procesuiranja« znanja, niti je poanta samo na razini moralno-ćudorednog aspekta, već se ukazuje na to da se u njegovo središte stavlja čovjek u svojoj sveukupnosti i osobitosti. Središnju tezu članka razvijamo u sklopu četiri nosiva poglavlja: u prvome, koje ujedno predstavlja polazište, razlažemo grčko-platonovsku misaonu tradiciju u pogledu obrazovanja ističući, pritom, dva odlučujuća pojma, imago (slika) i imitatio (nasljedovanje). Na to se nadovezuje drugo poglavlje u kojem odabiremo dva, po nama ključna teoretičara – Humboldta i Hegela – koji, svaki na svoj način, motre »dušu« obrazovanja kroz pojmove univerzalnosti u vidu otrgnuća od partikularnog te slobode u vidu samoće odnosno otrgnuća od mnoštva. Predočeni prikazi nikako ne dokidaju jednu od važnih karakteristika obrazovanja, izobrazbu, koja se izlaže u trećem poglavlju, pri čemu se nastoji dati do znanja da ona, želi li biti autentična, također mora imati u vidu »prispijeće duše k samoj sebi«. Zaključni izvodi u četvrtom poglavlju donose ukaze o stanju koje je na djelu s obzirom na obrazovanje, poput sunovrata u funkcionalizam i praksu te izostanak svake ideje o njemu, a što je u konačnici posljedica »proganjanja duha iz obrazovanja« (K. P. Liessmann).
Eine der grundlegenden menschlichen Bestimmungen ist die, dass der Mensch ein sich bildendes Wesen ist. Den Grund dafür findet die philosophische Tradition in seiner geistigen Seele. Für Humboldt und seine Universität beispielsweise, ist die Seele der Grund dieses Prozesses. Die zeitgenössische Bildungsphilosophie, namentlich die Pädagogik und die ihr verwandten Wissenschaften, vermeiden jedoch (völlig) die Rede über die Seele hinsichtlich der Erziehung und besonders hinsichtlich der Bildung. Dies führt bereits zur zentralen These des Artikels, welche wie folgt zusammengefasst werden kann: Bildung kann und darf nicht auf die Rezeption von Wissen und Fähigkeiten bzw. Fertigkeiten im Sinne bloßer Qualifizierung reduziert werden, sondern muss zu ihren tiefsten Grundlagen zurückkehren, welche sich gleichzeitig als grundlegende Bestimmungen bzw. Perspektiven der Bildung überhaupt darstellen: Mit der Öffnung zur Ganzheit der Welt kommt die Seele (Person) innerhalb der Bildung bei sich selbst an. Hiermit aber führt sich die Bildung nicht ausschließlich auf die theoretisch-spekulative Art der Annahme und der „Prozessierung“ des Wissens zurück oder zielt ausschließlich auf den moralisch-sittlichen Aspekt; vielmehr wird darauf verwiesen, dass der Mensch in seiner Gesamtheit und Eigenart in ihren Mittelpunkt gestellt wird. Die zentrale These des Aufsatzes wird durch vier tragende Kapitel entfaltet: Im ersten, welches zudem als Ausgangspunkt gilt, wird die griechisch-platonische Denktradition im Hinblick auf die Bildung erörtet, indem dabei die Zwei entscheidenden Begriffe, imago (Bild) und imitatio (Nachahmung), hervorgehoben werden. Im zweiten beziehen wir uns auf zwei – unserer Ansicht nach – Schlüsseltheoretiker, W. v. Humboldt und G. F. W. Hegel, die, jeder auf seine Weise, die „Seele“ der Bildung durch die Begriffe der Universalität in Form der Losreißung vom Partikularen und der Freiheit in Form der Einsamkeit oder Losreißung von der Menge beobachten. Die vorgestellten Darstellungen heben auf keinen Fall eines der wichtigen Merkmale der Bildung auf, die Ausbildung, die im dritten Kapitel erörtert wird, wobei man zur Kenntnis geben möchte, dass sie, wenn sie authentisch sein soll, auch die „Ankunft der Seele bei sich selbst“ berücksichtigen muss. Die abschließenden Ausführungen im vierten Kapitel schildern die Situation derzeitiger Bildung, beispielsweise das Abgleiten in den Funktionalismus und in die reine Praxis sowie das Ausbleiben jeglicher Idee davon, was im Endeffekt die Folge der „Vertreibung des Geistes aus der Bildung“ ist (K. P. Liessmann).
Eine der grundlegenden menschlichen Bestimmungen ist die, dass der Mensch ein sich bildendes Wesen ist. Den Grund dafür findet die philosophische Tradition in seiner geistigen Seele. Für Humboldt und ...seine Universität beispielsweise, ist die Seele der Grund dieses Prozesses. Die zeitgenössische Bildungsphilosophie, namentlich die Pädagogik und die ihr verwandten Wissenschaften, vermeiden jedoch (völlig) die Rede über die Seele hinsichtlich der Erziehung und besonders hinsichtlich der Bildung. Dies führt bereits zur zentralen These des Artikels, welche wie folgt zusammengefasst werden kann: Bildung kann und darf nicht auf die Rezeption von Wissen und Fähigkeiten bzw. Fertigkeiten im Sinne bloßer Qualifizierung reduziert werden, sondern muss zu ihren tiefsten Grundlagen zurückkehren, welche sich gleichzeitig als grundlegende Bestimmungen bzw. Perspektiven der Bildung überhaupt darstellen: Mit der Öffnung zur Ganzheit der Welt kommt die Seele (Person) innerhalb der Bildung bei sich selbst an. Hiermit aber führt sich die Bildung nicht ausschließlich auf die theoretisch-spekulative Art der Annahme und der „Prozessierung“ des Wissens zurück oder zielt ausschließlich auf den moralisch-sittlichen Aspekt; vielmehr wird darauf verwiesen, dass der Mensch in seiner Gesamtheit und Eigenart in ihren Mittelpunkt gestellt wird. Die zentrale These des Aufsatzes wird durch vier tragende Kapitel entfaltet: Im ersten, welches zudem als Ausgangspunkt gilt, wird die griechisch-platonische Denktradition im Hinblick auf die Bildung erörtet, indem dabei die Zwei entscheidenden Begriffe, imago (Bild) und imitatio (Nachahmung), hervorgehoben werden. Im zweiten beziehen wir uns auf zwei – unserer Ansicht nach – Schlüsseltheoretiker, W. v. Humboldt und G. F. W. Hegel, die, jeder auf seine Weise, die „Seele“ der Bildung durch die Begriffe der Universalität in Form der Losreißung vom Partikularen und der Freiheit in Form der Einsamkeit oder Losreißung von der Menge beobachten. Die vorgestellten Darstellungen heben auf keinen Fall eines der wichtigen Merkmale der Bildung auf, die Ausbildung, die im dritten Kapitel erörtert wird, wobei man zur Kenntnis geben möchte, dass sie, wenn sie authentisch sein soll, auch die „Ankunft der Seele bei sich selbst“ berücksichtigen muss. Die abschließenden Ausführungen im vierten Kapitel schildern die Situation derzeitiger Bildung, beispielsweise das Abgleiten in den Funktionalismus und in die reine Praxis sowie das Ausbleiben jeglicher Idee davon, was im Endeffekt die Folge der „Vertreibung des Geistes aus der Bildung“ ist (K. P. Liessmann).
Analiza spoznajno-ontoloških, a poglavito moralno-etičkih koncepata, u filozofiji Friedricha Wilhelma Nietzschea pokazuje lišenost kao važnu sastavnicu koja kompromitira njihov status. Praznina se u ...vidu čistoće neizbježno pojavljuje tijekom razlaganja Nietzscheove misli. Pod utjecajem perspektivizma, epistemologija je, a s njom i pitanje istine, podvrgnuta radikalnoj dekonstrukciji. Rezultati bitno utječu na opstojnost morala, vrijednosti i pojma dobra uopće. Lišenost se pojavljuje u vrijednostima, što vodi do pesimizma. Pesimističke vrijednosti udaljavaju se od intenziteta životnoga instinkta. Kao odraz života, pače težnje za životom, čovjek stvara i uništava. Čitava je stvarnost u suprotnostima, a time, nužno, u dijalektici i konfliktnosti. Nietzsche, međutim, ne teži (hegelovskom) pomirenju (versöhnen) suprotnosti, nego zahtijeva njihovo podnošenje (dulden), što je ujedno nadilaženje. Neizbježno se pojavljuje konfliktnost između pesimističkih i životnih vrijednosti. Pesimizam prethodi nihilizmu, što izmjenjuje pojam istine, smisla i temelja. U zaključnim analizama postaje bjelodano kako se stvaratelj vrijednosti stavlja u odnos s konceptom vječnoga vraćanja i nadvladavanja nihilizma. Praznina i besmisao zamjenjuju se dinamičnim i konfliktnim poimanjem života, tj. postojanja, pri čemu se dinamika života ne smije shvatiti u organskom ili drugom bio-morfološkom smislu, nego u odnosu na pojedinca i njegov stvaralački potencijal tek u vidu promjene već ponovne uspostave zbilje. To znači da se, u konačnici, fokus stavlja upravo na subjekt, čovjeka kao volju i njegove egzistencijske činove.
The analysis of cognitive-ontological and especially ethical concepts in Nietzscheʼs philosophy shows deprivation as an important component that compromises their status. The emptiness, in the form of purity, inevitably appears during the decomposition of Nietzsche’s thought. Under the influence of perspectivism, epistemology, along with the question of truth, have undergone radical deconstruction. The results significantly affect the existence of morality, values and the notion of good in general. Deprivation appears in values, which leads to pessimism. Pessimistic values move away from the intensity of life instinct. As a reflection of life, man strives and destroys the aspirations for life. The whole reality, on the other hand, is in opposition and thus, necessarily, in dialectic and conflict. Nietzsche, however, does not strive for (Hegelian) reconciliation (versöhnen) opposites, but requires their enduring (dulden), which is, at the same time, overcoming. Conflict between pessimistic and life valuesinevitably arises. Pessimism precedes nihilism, which alternates the notion of truth, meaning, and foundation. In the concluding analysis, it becomes clear how the value creator is placed in relation to the concept of eternal return and overcoming nihilism. Emptiness and lack of sense are replaced by a dynamic and conflicting conception of life, i.e. existence, where the dynamics of life must not be understood in an organic or other bio-morphological sense, but in relation to the individual and his creative potential only in the form of change and reestablishment of reality. This, in turn, means that, ultimately, the focus is on the subject, man as will and his existential acts.
Unatoč uvriježenom mišljenju kako
metafizička refleksija o moralu i temeljnim principima ne pomaže osobito, cilj
je priloga osvijetliti ishodište moralnoga diskursa koji nužno započinje od
...metafizičke raščlambe ljudskih čina. Metoda koju autor u razmatranju čina
primjenjuje jest analitičko-ontološka,
štoviše, ona se ovdje pokazuje ključnom. Tako se u prvom dijelu analize
prispjelo uvidima koji neporecivo upućuju na to da se ljudski čini daju
svrstati u dvije osnovne skupine: tzv. tranzeuntna (prijelazna) djelovanja na
jednoj te imanentna (unutarnja) na drugoj strani. Temeljna pak karakteristika
obaju vrsta djelovanja, odnosno činā jest promjena, bilo da je riječ primjerice
o pjevanju, crtanju, plivanju (tranzeuntna) ili pak razmišljanju, htjenju,
ljutnji (imanentna). Navedeni primjeri pokazuju da se jedno stanje stvarnosti
premjestilo, promijenilo u drugo. Predočena pak analiza poslužila je kao pozadina
razmatranja pojmova grijeha i krivnje, koji svojom opsežnošću i kakvoćom nužno
potpadaju u jednu od predočenih vrsta djelovanja. Ubojstvo, krađa, preljub kao
tranzeuntni te mržnja, pohlepa, požuda kao imanentni prijestupi, tj. grijesi,
za posljedicu također imaju – kao i djelovanja općenito – promjenu, poglavito
na unutarnjem te zatim, posljedično, i na vanjskom području. Uz iskustvo
grijeha nužno se veže doživljaj krivnje. Članak, tako, završava razmatranjem o
fenomenologiji krivnje kao unutarnjem činu. Ona se pak u svojem početnom dijelu
očituje kao preuzimanje odgovornosti te u završnom kao pokajanje, koje uz
oprost krivnji u konačnici daje potpuni smisao.
Despite the widely held view that a metaphysical reflection on morality and fundamental principles does not help much, the goal of the article is to shed light on the source of moral discourse that necessarily begins with a metaphysical analysis of human acts. The method used by the author in the analysis of the act is analytical-ontological, and, moreover, it is shown to be the key one here. Thus, the first part of the analysis has provided great insights that undeniably reveal that human acts can be classified into two basic groups: the so-called transient (transitive) actions on the one side, and immanent (inner) on the other side. The fundamental characteristic of both types of actions, or acts, is change, whether it is singing, drawing, swimming (transient) or thinking, wanting, anger (immanent). The above examples show that one state of reality has moved or changed to another. The presented analysis served as the background for reflection on the concepts of sin and guilt, which through their complexity and quality necessarily fall into one of the presented types of action. Murder, theft, and adultery as transient, and hatred, greed, and lust as immanent transgressions, i.e. sins, also have as a consequence – as well as actions in general – a change, especially in the internal and then, consequently, also in the external area. The experience of sin is necessarily linked with the experience of guilt. The article, therefore, ends with a reflection on the phenomenology of guilt as an internal act. At the beginning it manifests itself as taking responsibility and, in the end, as repentance, which together with forgiveness, ultimately gives full meaning to guilt.
U posljednje smo vrijeme svjedoci teških prijepora o obrazovanju. Ono, htjeli ili ne, nužno uključuje odgoj. Čini se da je upravo ta riječ na takav način obremenila pojam obrazovanja da ga se ono, ...kakvog li paradoksa, poput neželjenoga djeteta, želi riješiti.
The analysis of cognitive-ontological and especially ethical concepts in Nietzscheʼs philosophy shows deprivation as an important component that compromises their status. The emptiness, in the form ...of purity, inevitably appears during the decomposition of Nietzsche’s thought. Under the influence of perspectivism, epistemology, along with the question of truth, have undergone radical deconstruction. The results significantly affect the existence of morality, values and the notion of good in general. Deprivation appears in values, which leads to pessimism. Pessimistic values move away from the intensity of life instinct. As a reflection of life, man strives and destroys the aspirations for life. The whole reality, on the other hand, is in opposition and thus, necessarily, in dialectic and conflict. Nietzsche, however, does not strive for (Hegelian) reconciliation (versöhnen) opposites, but requires their enduring (dulden), which is, at the same time, overcoming. Conflict between pessimistic and life valuesinevitably arises. Pessimism precedes nihilism, which alternates the notion of truth, meaning, and foundation. In the concluding analysis, it becomes clear how the value creator is placed in relation to the concept of eternal return and overcoming nihilism. Emptiness and lack of sense are replaced by a dynamic and conflicting conception of life, i.e. existence, where the dynamics of life must not be understood in an organic or other bio-morphological sense, but in relation to the individual and his creative potential only in the form of change and reestablishment of reality. This, in turn, means that, ultimately, the focus is on the subject, man as will and his existential acts.
From a variety of topics and approaches that are offered in discussing Pope Francis’ encyclical Laudato si’ the author selects the concept of justice, which the Roman Pontiff frequently uses. ...Moreover, in response to the question ‘why every environmental approach must include a social perspective?’ Pope Francis concludes that the environmental issues and poverty as a clear example of unjust structures are strikingly connected. In order to shed as much light on this relationship, the author of the article immerses in the fundamentals of philosophical discourse about justice by pointing out its two fundamental aspects: justice in general on one side and justice in the narrow sense on the other. When discussing the inner attitude of developing harmonious relationships towards ourselves, others, nature, and finally God, then Pope Francis, according to the author, has in mind precisely justice in the general sense, which he explains in detail in a separate section of the article. Regarding the second characteristic of justice, the author, indicating (again) the philosophical-social tradition, shows that it is realized through two well-known principles: commutative and distributive. The latter distributive principle of justice is very well known (especially in contemporary political and social theories) and it concerns – as the title suggests – the distribution of goods. Pope Francis directly mentions this aspect, underlying that one of the causes of environmental issues lies in the unjust distribution of goods, which the author of the article analyzes in great detail by correlating it with some modern theories.
Jedno od temeljnih obilježja suvremene filozofije jest njezino bavljenje čovjekovim postojanjem. Time je ona zadobila naziv egzistencijalna, odnosno u nekim inačicama filozofija egzistencije. ...Nekoliko je razloga povratka filozofije k razmatranju čovjekova postojanja: ponajprije, radi se o zasićenosti velikim sustavima, poput primjerice hegelovskoga, koji u pokušajima zadobivanja dovršenih i gotovih spoznaja o totalitetu, zaboravljaju čovjeka u njegovoj konkretnosti. Daljnji razlog valja tražiti u pokušaju legitimiranja filozofije u odnosu na ostale znanosti i znanstvene discipline, koje su u svojoj parcijalnosti čovjeka postavile objektom svojega istraživanja, stavljajući tako pred filozofiju izazov novoga i cjelovitoga govora o čovjeku i o njegovu postojanju.
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