The attainment of both strength and toughness is a vital requirement for most structural materials; unfortunately these properties are generally mutually exclusive. Although the quest continues for ...stronger and harder materials, these have little to no use as bulk structural materials without appropriate fracture resistance. It is the lower-strength, and hence higher-toughness, materials that find use for most safety-critical applications where premature or, worse still, catastrophic fracture is unacceptable. For these reasons, the development of strong and tough (damage-tolerant) materials has traditionally been an exercise in compromise between hardness versus ductility. Drawing examples from metallic glasses, natural and biological materials, and structural and biomimetic ceramics, we examine some of the newer strategies in dealing with this conflict. Specifically, we focus on the interplay between the mechanisms that individually contribute to strength and toughness, noting that these phenomena can originate from very different lengthscales in a material's structural architecture. We show how these new and natural materials can defeat the conflict of strength versus toughness and achieve unprecedented levels of damage tolerance within their respective material classes.
High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are an intriguing new class of metallic materials due to their unique mechanical behavior. Achieving a detailed understanding of structure–property relationships in these ...materials has been challenged by the compositional disorder that underlies their unique mechanical behavior. Accordingly, in this work, we employ first-principles calculations to investigate the nature of local chemical order and establish its relationship to the intrinsic and extrinsic stacking fault energy (SFE) in CrCoNi medium-entropy solid-solution alloys, whose combination of strength, ductility, and toughness properties approaches the best on record. We find that the average intrinsic and extrinsic SFE are both highly tunable, with values ranging from −43 to 30 mJ·m−2 and from −28 to 66 mJ·m−2, respectively, as the degree of local chemical order increases. The state of local ordering also strongly correlates with the energy difference between the face-centered cubic (fcc) and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) phases, which affects the occurrence of transformation-induced plasticity. This theoretical study demonstrates that chemical short-range order is thermodynamically favored in HEAs and can be tuned to affect the mechanical behavior of these alloys. It thus addresses the pressing need to establish robust processing–structure–property relationships to guide the science-based design of new HEAs with targeted mechanical behavior.
Toughening materials: enhancing resistance to fracture Ritchie, Robert O.
Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences,
08/2021, Letnik:
379, Številka:
2203
Journal Article
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It has been said that ‘God invented plasticity, but the Devil invented fracture!’ Both mechanisms represent the two prime modes of structural failure, respectively, plastic collapse and the ...rupture/breaking of a component, but the concept of developing materials with enhanced resistance to fracture can be difficult. This is because fracture resistance invariably involves a compromise—between strength and ductility, between strength and toughness—fundamentally leading to a ‘conflict’ between nano-/micro-structural damage and the mechanisms of toughening. Here, we examine the two major classes of such toughening: (i)
intrinsic toughening
, which occurs ahead of a crack tip and is motivated by plasticity—this is the principal mode of fracture resistance in ductile materials, and (ii)
extrinsic toughening
, which occurs at, or in the wake of, a crack tip and is associated with crack-tip shielding—this is generally the sole mode of fracture resistance in brittle materials. We briefly examine how these distinct mechanistic processes have been used to toughen synthetic materials—intrinsically in gradient materials and in multiple principal-element metallic alloys with the example of metallic glasses and high-entropy alloys, and extrinsically in ceramics with the example of ceramic-matrix composites—in comparison to Nature which has been especially adept in creating biological/natural materials which are toughened by one or both mechanistic classes, despite often consisting of constituents with meagre mechanical properties. The success of Nature has been driven by its ability to cultivate the development of materials with multiple length-scale hierarchical structures that display ingenious gradients and structural adaptability, a philosophy which we need to emulate and more importantly learn to synthesize to make structural materials of the future with unprecedented combinations of mechanical properties.
This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘A cracking approach to inventing new tough materials: fracture stranger than friction’.
Pristine monocrystalline graphene is claimed to be the strongest material known with remarkable mechanical and electrical properties. However, graphene made with scalable fabrication techniques is ...polycrystalline and contains inherent nanoscale line and point defects--grain boundaries and grain-boundary triple junctions--that lead to significant statistical fluctuations in toughness and strength. These fluctuations become particularly pronounced for nanocrystalline graphene where the density of defects is high. Here we use large-scale simulation and continuum modelling to show that the statistical variation in toughness and strength can be understood with 'weakest-link' statistics. We develop the first statistical theory of toughness in polycrystalline graphene, and elucidate the nanoscale origins of the grain-size dependence of its strength and toughness. Our results should lead to more reliable graphene device design, and provide a framework to interpret experimental results in a broad class of two-dimensional materials.
High-entropy alloys (HEAs), also known as multi-principal element alloys or multi-component alloys, have been the subject of numerous investigations since they were first described in 2004. The ...earliest HEA was the equiatomic CrMnFeCoNi “Cantor” alloy, but HEAs now encompass a broad class of metallic and ceramic systems. The concept of utilizing the high entropy of mixing to develop stable multi-element alloys may not be scientifically correct but has produced extraordinary mechanical properties in specific HEAs, mainly CrCoNi-based alloys, associated with their continuous work-hardening rate that is sustained to large plastic strains (∼0.5) and at low temperatures. This, in combination with the high frictional forces on dislocations and a propensity for twinning, leads to outstandingly high fracture toughness values (exceeding 200 MPa·m1/2) and resistance to shear-band formation under dynamic loading. The critical shear strain for the onset of adiabatic shear band formation is ∼7 for the Cantor alloy, much higher than that for conventional alloys, suggesting superior ballistic properties. The slower diffusion rates resulting from the multi-element environment contribute to the excellent intermediate-temperature performance. We review the principal mechanical properties of these alloys with emphasis on the face-centered cubic systems, such as the CrCoNi-based alloys. Their favorable mechanical properties and ease of processing by conventional means suggest extensive utilization in many future structural applications.
The presence, nature, and impact of chemical short-range order in the multi-principal element alloy CrCoNi are all topics of current interest and debate. First-principles calculations reveal that its ...origins are fundamentally magnetic, involving repulsion between like-spin Co-Cr and Cr-Cr pairs that is complemented by the formation of a magnetically aligned sublattice of second-nearest-neighbor Cr atoms. Ordering models following these principles are found to predict otherwise anomalous experimental measurements concerning both magnetization and atomic volumes across a range of compositions. In addition to demonstrating the impact of magnetic interactions and resulting chemical rearrangement, the possible explanation of experiments would imply that short-range order of this type is far more prevalent than previously realized.
Living organisms have ingeniously evolved functional gradients and heterogeneities to create high-performance biological materials from a fairly limited choice of elements and compounds during ...long-term evolution and selection. The translation of such design motifs into synthetic materials offers a spectrum of feasible pathways towards unprecedented properties and functionalities that are favorable for practical uses in a variety of engineering and medical fields. Here, we review the basic design forms and principles of naturally-occurring gradients in biological materials and discuss the functions and benefits that they confer to organisms. These gradients are fundamentally associated with the variations in local chemical compositions/constituents and structural characteristics involved in the arrangement, distribution, dimensions and orientations of the building units. The associated interfaces in biological materials invariably demonstrate localized gradients and a variety of gradients are generally integrated over multiple length-scales within the same material. The bioinspired design and applications of synthetic functionally graded materials that mimic their natural paradigms are revisited and the emerging processing techniques needed to replicate the biological gradients are described. It is expected that in the future bioinspired gradients and heterogeneities will play an increasingly important role in the development of high-performance materials for more challenging applications.
High-entropy alloys are equiatomic, multi-element systems that can crystallize as a single phase, despite containing multiple elements with different crystal structures. A rationale for this is that ...the configurational entropy contribution to the total free energy in alloys with five or more major elements may stabilize the solid-solution state relative to multiphase microstructures.We examined a five-element high-entropy alloy, CrMnFeCoNi, which forms a single-phase face-centered cubic solid solution, and found it to have exceptional damage tolerance with tensile strengths above 1 GPa and fracture toughness values exceeding 200 MPa·m1/2. Furthermore, its mechanical properties actually improve at cryogenic temperatures; we attribute this to a transition from planar-slip dislocation activity at room temperature to deformation by mechanical nanotwinning with decreasing temperature, which results in continuous steady strain hardening.
Developing ultrahigh strength steels that are ductile, fracture resistant, and cost-effective would be attractive for a variety of structural applications. We show that improved fracture resistance ...in a steel with an ultrahigh yield strength of nearly 2GPa can be achieved by activating delamination toughening coupled with transformation induced plasticity. Delamination toughening associated with intensive but controlled cracking at Mn-enriched prior-austenite grain boundaries normal to the primary fracture surface dramatically improves the overall fracture resistance. As a result, fracture under plane-strain conditions is automatically transformed into a series of fracture processes in "parallel" plane-stress conditions through the thickness. The present "high-strength induced multi-delamination" strategy offers a different pathway to develop engineering materials with ultra-high strength and superior toughness at economical materials cost.
Biological materials exhibit anisotropic characteristics because of the anisometric nature of their constituents and their preferred alignment within interfacial matrices. The regulation of ...structural orientations is the basis for material designs in nature and may offer inspiration for man‐made materials. Here, how structural orientation and anisotropy are designed into biological materials to achieve diverse functionalities is revisited. The orientation dependencies of differing mechanical properties are introduced based on a 2D composite model with wood and bone as examples; as such, anisotropic architectures and their roles in property optimization in biological systems are elucidated. Biological structural orientations are designed to achieve extrinsic toughening via complicated cracking paths, robust and releasable adhesion from anisotropic contact, programmable dynamic response by controlled expansion, enhanced contact damage resistance from varying orientations, and simultaneous optimization of multiple properties by adaptive structural reorientation. The underlying mechanics and material‐design principles that could be reproduced in man‐made systems are highlighted. Finally, the potential and challenges in developing a better understanding to implement such natural designs of structural orientation and anisotropy are discussed in light of current advances. The translation of these biological design principles can promote the creation of new synthetic materials with unprecedented properties and functionalities.
Biological materials have developed anisotropic architectures in achieving diverse functionalities, which could offer inspiration for man‐made systems. Here, the natural designs for structural orientation and anisotropy along with their roles in property optimization are revisited with a special emphasis on the underlying mechanics. The implementation of bioinspired material–design principles may promote the creation of new materials with unprecedented properties.
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