The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the menstrual cycle and its underlying hormonal fluctuations affect muscle damage and inflammation in well-trained females following an eccentric ...exercise. Nineteen eumenorrheic women performed an eccentric squat-based exercise in the early follicular phase, late follicular phase and mid-luteal phase of their menstrual cycle. Sex hormones and blood markers of muscle damage and inflammation -creatine kinase, myoglobin, lactate dehydrogenase, interleukin-6, tumoral necrosis factor-, and C reactive protein- were analyzed in each phase. No effect of menstrual cycle phase was observed (
> 0.05), while an interaction for interleukin-6 was shown (
= 0.047). Accordingly, a moderate effect size 0.68 (0.53)-0.84 (0.74), indicated that interleukin-6 values 2 h post-trial (2.07 1.26 pg/mL) were likely to be higher than baseline (1.59 0.33 pg/mL), 24 h (1.50 0.01 pg/mL) and 48 h (1.54 0.13 pg/mL) in the mid-luteal phase. Blood markers of muscle damage and inflammation were not affected by the menstrual cycle in well-trained women. The eccentric exercise barely triggered muscle damage and hence, no inflammation was observed, possibly due to participants training status. The mid-luteal phase was the only phase reflecting a possible inflammatory response in terms of interleukin-6, although further factors than sex hormones seem to be responsible for this finding.
The use of oral contraceptives (OCs) by female athletes may lead to improved iron status, possibly through the regulation of hepcidin by sex hormones. The present work investigates the response of ...hepcidin and interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) to an interval exercise in both phases of the OC cycle. Sixteen endurance‐trained OC users (age 25.3 ± 4.7 years; height 162.4 ± 5.7 cm; body mass 56.0 ± 5.7 kg; body fat percentage 24.8 ± 6.0%; peak oxygen consumption VO2peak: 47.4 ± 5.5 mL min−1 kg−1) followed an identical interval running protocol during the withdrawal and active pill phases of the OC cycle. This protocol consisted of 8 × 3 minutes bouts at 85% VO2peak speed with 90 seconds recovery intervals. Blood samples were collected pre‐exercise, and at 0 hour, 3 hours, and 24 hours post‐exercise. Pre‐exercise 17β‐estradiol was lower (P = .001) during the active pill than the withdrawal phase (7.91 ± 1.81 vs 29.36 ± 6.45 pg/mL mean ± SEM). No differences were seen between the OC phases with respect to hepcidin or IL‐6 concentrations, whether taking all time points together or separately. However, within the withdrawal phase, hepcidin concentrations were higher at 3 hours post‐exercise (3.33 ± 0.95 nmol/L) than at pre‐exercise (1.04 ± 0.20 nmol/L; P = .005) and 0 hour post‐exercise (1.41 ± 0.38 nmol/L; P = .045). Within both OC phases, IL‐6 was higher at 0 hour post‐exercise than at any other time point (P < .05). Similar trends in hepcidin and IL‐6 concentrations were seen at the different time points during both OC phases. OC use led to low 17β‐estradiol concentrations during the active pill phase but did not affect hepcidin. This does not, however, rule out estradiol affecting hepcidin levels.
ABSTRACTRomero-Parra, N, Cupeiro, R, Alfaro-Magallanes, VM, Rael, B, Rubio-Arias, JA, Peinado, AB, and Benito, PJ, IronFEMME Study Group. Exercise-induced muscle damage during the menstrual cycleA ...systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res XX(X)000–000, 2020—A strenuous bout of exercise could trigger damage of muscle tissue, and it is not clear how sex hormone fluctuations occurring during the menstrual cycle (MC) affect this response. The aims of this study were to systematically search and assess studies that have evaluated exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in eumenorrheic women over the MC and to perform a meta-analysis to quantify which MC phases display the muscle damage response. The guidelines of the Preferred Reported Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis were followed. A total of 19 articles were analyzed in the quantitative synthesis. Included studies examined EIMD in at least one phase of the following MC phasesearly follicular phase (EFP), late follicular phase (LFP), or midluteal phase (MLP). The meta-analysis demonstrated differences between MC phases for delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and strength loss (p < 0.05), whereas no differences were observed between MC phases for creatine kinase. The maximum mean differences between pre-excercise and post-exercise for DOMS were EFP6.57 (4.42, 8.71), LFP5.37 (2.10, 8.63), and MLP3.08 (2.22, 3.95), whereas for strength loss were EFP−3.46 (−4.95, −1.98), LFP−1.63 (−2.36, −0.89), and MLP−0.72 (−1.07, −0.36) (p < 0.001). In conclusion, this meta-analysis suggests that hormone fluctuations throughout the MC affect EIMD in terms of DOMS and strength loss. Lower training loads or longer recovery periods could be considered in the EFP, when sex hormone concentrations are lower and women may be more vulnerable to muscle damage, whereas strength conditioning loads could be enhanced in the MLP.
This study measured serum markers of iron status in naturally menstruating and oral contraceptive (OC) athletes during the main hormonal milieus of these two profiles to identify potential ...differences confounding the diagnosis of iron deficiency in female athletes. Resting blood samples were collected from 36 naturally menstruating athletes during the early-follicular phase (EFP), mid- late-follicular phase (MLFP) and mid-luteal phase (MLP) of the menstrual cycle. Simultaneously, blood samples were collected from 24 OC athletes during the withdrawal and active-pill phase of the OC cycle. Serum iron, ferritin, transferrin, transferrin saturation (TSAT), C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 and sex hormones were analyzed. Naturally menstruating athletes showed lower levels of TSAT, iron and transferrin than OC athletes when comparing the bleeding phase of both profiles (p<0.05) as well as when comparing all analyzed phases of the menstrual cycle to the active pill phase of the OC cycle (p<0.05). Interestingly, only lower transferrin was found during MLFP and MLP compared to the withdrawal phase of the OC cycle (p>0.05), with all other iron markers showing no differences (p>0.05). Intracycle variations were also found within both types of cycle, presenting reduced TSAT and iron during menstrual bleeding phases (p<0.05). In conclusion, in OC athletes, serum iron availability, but not serum ferritin, seems higher than in naturally menstruating ones. However, such differences are lost when comparing the MLFP and MLP of the menstrual cycle with the withdrawal phase of the OC cycle. This should be considered in the assessment of iron status in female athletes.
Highlights
Naturally menstruating athletes present lower TSAT, iron and transferrin in all analyzed phases of the menstrual cycle compared to OC athletes during their active pill phase. However, both the mid-late follicular and mid-luteal phases of the menstrual cycle do not differ from the withdrawal phase of the oral contraceptive cycle.
Intracycle variations are found for TSAT and iron in both naturally menstruating and oral contraceptive athletes, which are mainly driven by a reduction in TSAT and iron during menstrual bleeding phases.
As serum iron availability changes significantly as a function of the athlete's hormonal status, it should be considered in the assessment of the athlete's iron status as well as standardise the phase of the menstrual cycle in which to assess iron markers to avoid misdiagnosis or misleading results.
In contrast, the assessment of iron stores through serum ferritin is substantially stable and the athlete's hormonal status does not seem to be of relevance for this purpose.
The primary objective of this study was to examine the influence of hormonal ovarian profile and training characteristics on spine, pelvis, and total body bone mineral density (BMD) in a group of ...well-trained females. Forty-two eumenorrheic females, twenty-eight monophasic oral contraceptive (OC) users and thirteen postmenopausal females participated in this study. Body composition was measured by total body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to determine BMD of the areas of interest. Endurance-trained premenopausal females showed lower spine BMD compared to resistance-trained premenopausal females (1.03 ± 0.1 vs. 1.09 ± 0.09 g/cm
2
; p = 0.025). Postmenopausal females reported lower BMD level in comparison to eumenorrheic females in pelvis (1.079 ± 0.082 vs 1.19 ± 0.115 g/cm
2
; p = 0.005), spine (0.969 ± 0.097 vs 1.069 ± 0.109 g/cm
2
; p = 0.012) and total (1.122 ± 0.08 vs 1.193 ± 0.077 g/cm
2
; p = 0.018) and OC users whose duration of OC use was less than 5 years (OC < 5) in pelvis (1.235 ± 0.068 g/cm
2
; p < 0.001) and spine (1.062 ± 0.069 g/cm
2
; p = 0.018). In addition, lower BMD values were found in OC users who had been using OC for more than 5 years (OC ≥ 5) than eumenorrheic females in pelvis (1.078 ± 0.086 g/cm
2
; p = 0.029) and spine (0.966 ± 0.08 g/cm
2
; p = 0.05). Likewise, OC ≥ 5 showed lower values than and OC < 5 in pelvis (p = 0.004) and spine (p = 0.047). We observed a lower spine BMD value in premenopausal endurance-trained females compared to premenopausal resistance-trained females. Moreover, this research observed that prolonged use of OCs may reduce bone mass acquisition in the spine and pelvis, even in well-trained females. Finally, postmenopausal showed lower BMD despite being exercising women.
Trial registration:
ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04458662.
Highlights
Ovarian hormonal profile should be considered when assessing BMD in female athletes.
The duration of oral contraceptive use influences spine and pelvis regional BMD in exercising females.
Postmenopausal women show lower BMD when compared to premenopausal females despite being exercising females.
Using as a reference the Self-Determination Theory with its exposition of the three basic psychological needs, the literature on teaching styles and active methodologies, a didactic proposal using ...the Points, Badgets and Leaderboards (PBL) system for the subject of Physical Education based on the universe of Avatar is detailed. This intervention was carried out in a secondary school in Madrid (Spain) with students in the second year of ESO, at the end of which information was obtained from some of the participants, through personal interviews, on aspects related to the feeling of competence, teamwork, the subject matter used and the system for distributing points. The sense of novelty and the feeling of belonging to a group seem to have been the two key elements in increasing student motivation during the intervention, while at the same time the low motivational impact of other factors such as the chosen subject matter or the scoring system is discussed.
Utilizando como referencia la Teoría de la Autodeterminación con su exposición de las tres necesidades psicológicas básicas, la literatura sobre los estilos de enseñanza y las metodologías activas, se detalla una propuesta didáctica que utiliza el sistema Points, Badgets and Leaderboards (PBL) para la asignatura de Educación Física basada en el universo de Avatar. Esta intervención se llevó a cabo en un centro de educación secundaria de Madrid (España) con alumnado de segundo de ESO, al término de la cual se obtuvo información por parte de algunos de los participantes, a través de entrevistas personales, sobre aspectos relacionados con el sentimiento de competencia, el trabajo en equipo, la temática utilizada y el sistema de reparto de puntos. La sensación de novedad y el sentimiento de pertenencia a un grupo parecen haber sido los dos elementos clave en el aumento de la motivación en el alumnado durante la intervención, al mismo tiempo que se discute la escasa repercusión motivacional de otros factores como la temática elegida o el sistema de puntuación.
According to worrisome childhood obesity and inadequate physical activity (PA) levels worldwide, especially exacerbated in adolescents girls, this work aimed to identify sex and educational stage ...differences in barriers to meet PA requirements and international guidelines in Spanish children and adolescents considering the entire educational pathway (primary, secondary, and college). The Short Form of the International PA Questionnaire and the Scale of Perceived Barriers were administered to primary, secondary, and college education students (13,491 boys and 13,238 girls, 9–19 yrs). Two-way ANOVA was performed to analyze barriers to PA according to sex and educational stage with physical status as covariate. Higher disliking and time barriers were reported by females (1.5 ± 1.2 and 3.2 ± 1.5 points) in comparison to males (1.2 ± 1.0 and 2.8 ± 1.4), while primary students showed lower disliking and time (1.2 ± 1.0 and 2.8 ± 1.5) and higher safety (3.1 ± 1.8) constraints in comparison to secondary (1.4 ± 1.1, 3.1 ± 1.4, and 2.8 ± 1.7) and college (1.5 ± 1.2, 3.2 ± 1.5, and 2.8 ± 1.6;
p
< 0.05 for all comparisons). College females showed higher disliking (1.7 ± 1.2) and time (3.5 ± 1.4) barriers than secondary females (1.5 ± 1.2 and 3.3 ± 1.4;
p
< 0.05). Sex and educational stage were determinant for time and dislike of PA barriers, which were rated higher by female students in comparison to their male counterparts and from primary education onwards. Altogether this, suggests promotion strategies should carefully consider girls and the step into secondary school.
The indirect markers of muscle damage have been previously studied in females. However, inconclusive results have been found, possibly explained by the heterogeneity regarding monitoring and ...verification of menstrual-cycle phase.
To determine whether the fluctuations in sex hormones during the menstrual cycle influence muscle damage.
A total of 19 well-trained eumenorrheic women (age 28.6 5.9 y; height 163.4 6.1 cm; weight 59.6 5.8 kg body mass) performed an eccentric-based resistance protocol consisting of 10 × 10 back squats at 60% of their 1-repetition maximum on the early follicular phase (EFP), late follicular phase, and midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Range of motion, muscle soreness, countermovement jump, and limb circumferences were evaluated prior to 24 and 48 hours postexercise. Perceived exertion was evaluated after each set.
Differences in sex hormones indicated that tests were adequately performed in the different menstrual-cycle phases. Prior to exercise, muscle soreness was higher in the EFP (4.7 7.7) than in the late follicular phase (1.1 3.2; P = .045). No other variables showed significant differences between phases. Time-point differences (baseline, 24, and 48 h) were observed in knee range of motion (P = .02), muscle soreness, countermovement jump, and between sets for perceived exertion (P < .001).
Although the protocol elicited muscle damage, hormonal fluctuations over the menstrual cycle did not seem to affect indirect markers of muscle damage, except for perceived muscle soreness. Muscle soreness was perceived to be more severe before exercise performed in EFP, when estrogen concentrations are relatively low. This may impair women's predisposition to perform strenuous exercise during EFP.
The transition of students to the university stage is a critical period in which there are numerous changes that could influence their lifestyles. The aim of this research was to analyse the levels ...of physical activity and the types of motivation for physical activity among university students according to gender. A quantitative, descriptive, and cross-sectional survey methodology was used. A total sample of 3060 university students, 47.8% women and 52.2% men, with a mean age of 20.88 ± 2.01 years was recruited. The sampling margin of error was ±1.85%. The short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and the third version of the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire were used to evaluate MVPA and motivations to exercise, respectively. Two-way ANCOVA and a mediation analysis were performed. The most relevant results show that less than half of the university men and women are considered physically active. Furthermore, when analysing the interaction between motivation and gender, a large effect in identified motivation (F = 65.03; p≤ 0.001) and integrated motivation (F = 324.58; p ≤.0.001) and a medium one intrinsic motivation (F = 169.39; p ≤ 0.001) was found. Therefore, women university students have lower levels of physical activity practice than men students and show higher external motivation and demotivation.
(1) Background: the scientific literature has shown that students’ active involvement in the teaching–learning process significantly improves their learning outcomes. (2) Methods: this study shows ...the perceptions of seven researchers on the process of inquiring about the effects of the combined use of virtual reality (VR) and a practice teaching style in physical education in secondary educational institutions. (3) Results: the results obtained from the researchers’ diaries and the focus group, through qualitative design, are arranged in the following categories: difficulties in data collection before, during, and after the intervention; perceived differences between VR interventions in laboratory situations and educational contexts; and the perceived transferability of the use of VR devices in the educational context. (4) Conclusions: more research is needed on the use of VR in the educational context, although the results obtained indicate that the teaching–learning process can be enriched by overcoming the difficulties inherent to the use of this technology in a variable context such as education.
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