Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces an acute polioencephalomyelitis and a chronic demyelinating leukomyelitis in SJL mice. C57BL/6 (B6) mice generally do not develop TMEV-induced ...demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) due to virus elimination. However, TMEV can persist in specific immunodeficient B6 mice such as IFNβ
mice and induce a demyelinating process. The proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 are activated by the inflammasome pathway, which consists of a pattern recognition receptor molecule sensing microbial pathogens, the adaptor molecule Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC), and the executioner caspase-1. To analyze the contribution of the inflammasome pathway to the resistance of B6 mice to TMEV-IDD, ASC- and caspase-1-deficient mice and wild type littermates were infected with TMEV and investigated using histology, immunohistochemistry, RT-qPCR, and Western Blot. Despite the antiviral activity of the inflammasome pathway, ASC- and caspase-1-deficient mice eliminated the virus and did not develop TMEV-IDD. Moreover, a similar IFNβ and cytokine gene expression was found in the brain of immunodeficient mice and their wild type littermates. Most importantly, Western Blot showed cleavage of IL-1β and IL-18 in all investigated mice. Consequently, inflammasome-dependent activation of IL-1β and IL-18 does not play a major role in the resistance of B6 mice to TMEV-IDD.
Culturing respiratory epithelial cells at an air-liquid interface (ALI) represents an established method for studies on infection or toxicology by the generation of an in vivo-like respiratory tract ...epithelial cellular layer. Although primary respiratory cells from a variety of animals have been cultured, an in-depth characterization of canine tracheal ALI cultures is lacking despite the fact that canines are a highly relevant animal species susceptible to various respiratory agents, including zoonotic pathogens such as severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In this study, canine primary tracheal epithelial cells were cultured under ALI conditions for four weeks, and their development was characterized during the entire culture period. Light and electron microscopy were performed to evaluate cell morphology in correlation with the immunohistological expression profile. The formation of tight junctions was confirmed using transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements and immunofluorescence staining for the junctional protein ZO-1. After 21 days of culture at the ALI, a columnar epithelium containing basal, ciliated and goblet cells was seen, resembling native canine tracheal samples. However, cilia formation, goblet cell distribution and epithelial thickness differed significantly from the native tissue. Despite this limitation, tracheal ALI cultures could be used to investigate the pathomorphological interactions of canine respiratory diseases and zoonotic agents.
Natural or experimental infection of domestic cats and virus transmission from humans to captive predatory cats suggest that felids are highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, it is ...unclear which cells and compartments of the respiratory tract are infected. To address this question, primary cell cultures derived from the nose, trachea, and lungs of cat and lion were inoculated with SARS-CoV-2. Strong viral replication was observed for nasal mucosa explants and tracheal air-liquid interface cultures, whereas replication in lung slices was less efficient. Infection was mainly restricted to epithelial cells and did not cause major pathological changes. Detection of high ACE2 levels in the nose and trachea but not lung further suggests that susceptibility of feline tissues to SARS-CoV-2 correlates with ACE2 expression. Collectively, this study demonstrates that SARS-CoV-2 can efficiently replicate in the feline upper respiratory tract ex vivo and thus highlights the risk of SARS-CoV-2 spillover from humans to felids.
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes encephalitis followed by chronic demyelination in SJL mice and spontaneous seizures in C57BL/6 mice. Since ...earlier studies indicated a critical role of type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling in the control of viral replication in the central nervous system (CNS), mouse strain-specific differences in pathways induced by the IFN-I receptor (IFNAR) might determine the outcome of TMEV infection.
Data of RNA-seq analysis and immunohistochemistry were used to compare the gene and protein expression of IFN-I signaling pathway members between mock- and TMEV-infected SJL and C57BL/6 mice at 4, 7 and 14 days post-infection (dpi). To address the impact of IFNAR signaling in selected brain-resident cell types, conditional knockout mice with an IFNAR deficiency in cells of the neuroectodermal lineage (NesCre
IFNAR
), neurons (Syn1Cre
IFNAR
), astrocytes (GFAPCre
IFNAR
), and microglia (Sall1Cre
IFNAR
) on a C57BL/6 background were tested. PCR and an immunoassay were used to quantify TMEV RNA and cytokine and chemokine expression in their brain at 4 dpi.
RNA-seq analysis revealed upregulation of most ISGs in SJL and C57BL/6 mice, but Ifi202b mRNA transcripts were only increased in SJL and Trim12a only in C57BL/6 mice. Immunohistochemistry showed minor differences in ISG expression (ISG15, OAS, PKR) between both mouse strains. While all immunocompetent Cre-negative control mice and the majority of mice with IFNAR deficiency in neurons or microglia survived until 14 dpi, lack of IFNAR expression in all cells (IFNAR
), neuroectodermal cells, or astrocytes induced lethal disease in most of the analyzed mice, which was associated with unrestricted viral replication. NesCre
IFNAR
mice showed more Ifnb1, Tnfa, Il6, Il10, Il12b and Ifng mRNA transcripts than Cre
IFNAR
mice. IFNAR
mice also demonstrated increased IFN-α, IFN-β, IL1-β, IL-6, and CXCL-1 protein levels, which highly correlated with viral load.
Ifi202b and Trim12a expression levels likely contribute to mouse strain-specific susceptibility to TMEV-induced CNS lesions. Restriction of viral replication is strongly dependent on IFNAR signaling of neuroectodermal cells, which also controls the expression of key pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines during viral brain infection.
Formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is a two-faced innate host defense mechanism, which, on the one hand, can counteract microbial infections, but on the other hand, can contribute to ...massive detrimental effects on the host. Cholesterol depletion from the cellular membrane by Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) is known as one of the processes initiating NET formation. Since neutrophils mainly act in an inflammatory environment with decreased, so-called hypoxic, oxygen conditions, we aimed to study the effect of oxygen and the oxygen stress regulator hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α on cholesterol-dependent NET formation. Thus, murine bone marrow-derived neutrophils from wild-type and HIF-knockout mice or human neutrophils were stimulated with MβCD under normoxic (21% O
) compared to hypoxic (1% O
) conditions, and the formation of NETs were studied by immunofluorescence microscopy. We found significantly induced NET formation after treatment with MβCD in murine neutrophils derived from wild-type as well as HIF-1α KO mice at both hypoxic (1% O
) as well as normoxic (21% O
) conditions. Similar observations were made in freshly isolated human neutrophils after stimulation with MβCD or statins, which block the HMG-CoA reductase as the key enzyme in the cholesterol metabolism. HPLC was used to confirm the reduction of cholesterol in treated neutrophils. In summary, we were able to show that NET formation via MβCD or statin-treatment is oxygen and HIF-1α independent.
Several animal species are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, as documented by case reports and serological and in vivo infection studies. However, the susceptibility of many animal species remains ...unknown. Furthermore, the expression patterns of SARS-CoV-2 entry factors, such as the receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), as well as transmembrane protease serine subtype 2 (TMPRSS2) and cathepsin L (CTSL), cellular proteases involved in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein activation, are largely unexplored in most species. Here, we generated primary cell cultures from the respiratory tract of domestic and wildlife animals to assess their susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Additionally, the presence of
,
and
within respiratory tract compartments was investigated in a range of animals, some with unknown susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2. Productive viral replication was observed in the nasal mucosa explants and precision-cut lung slices from dogs and hamsters, whereas culture models from ferrets and multiple ungulate species were non-permissive to infection. Overall, whereas
and
were equally expressed in the respiratory tract, the expression levels of
were more variable, suggesting that a restricted availability of ACE2 may contribute to reduced susceptibility. Summarized, the experimental infection of primary respiratory tract cell cultures, as well as an analysis of entry-factor distribution, enable screening for SARS-CoV-2 animal reservoirs.
(IFN-I) are important inducers of the antiviral immune response and immune modulators. IFN-β is the most highly expressed IFN-I in the
(CNS). The infection of SJL mice with the BeAn or the DA strain ...of
(TMEV) results in a progressive demyelinating disease. C57BL/6 mice are usually resistant to TMEV-induced demyelination and eliminate these strains from the CNS within several weeks. Using C57BL/6
(IFN-β
) mice infected with TMEV, we evaluated the role of IFN-β in neuroinfection. Despite the resistance of C57BL/6
(WT) mice to TMEV infection, DA-infected IFN-β
mice had to be killed at 7 to 8
(dpi) due to severe clinical disease. In contrast, BeAn-infected IFN-β
mice survived until 98 dpi. Nevertheless at 14 dpi, BeAn-infected IFN-β
mice showed a stronger encephalitis and astrogliosis, higher viral load as well as higher mRNA levels of
,
(PKR),
,
,
,
and
in the cerebrum than BeAn-infected WT mice. Moreover, the majority of IFN-β
mice did not clear the virus from the CNS and developed mild demyelination in the spinal cord at 98 dpi, whereas virus and lesions were absent in the spinal cord of WT mice. Persistently infected IFN-β
mice also had higher
,
,
,
,
and
mRNA levels in the spinal cord at 98 dpi than their virus-negative counterparts indicating an activation of IFN-I signaling and ongoing inflammation. Most importantly, BeAn-infected NesCre
IFN-β
mice, which do not express IFN-β in neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, only developed mild brain lesions similar to WT mice. Consequently, IFN-β produced by neuroectodermal cells does not seem to play a critical role in the resistance of C57BL/6 mice against fatal and demyelinating disease induced by TMEV strains.
A 3-yr-old female panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) was presented with a history of long-term inactivity, anorexia, and difficulty defecating. Using sonographic examination, we diagnosed ...preovulatory follicular stasis with suspected ovarian cysts. Surgical management was elected, and the ovaries were intertwined and showed severe torsion and morphologic changes. The colon was caught within the entanglement, resulting in obstipation and urate retention. After ovariectomy, the animal was able to pass feces 17 h postsurgery and regained appetite. Preovulatory follicular stasis, as well as constipation, are commonly seen conditions in reptiles; however, torsions are rarely described.
The emergence of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) inspired rapid research efforts targeting the host range, ...pathogenesis and transmission mechanisms, and the development of antiviral strategies. Genetically modified mice, rhesus macaques, ferrets, and Syrian golden hamsters have been frequently used in studies of pathogenesis and efficacy of antiviral compounds and vaccines. However, alternatives to in vivo experiments, such as immortalized cell lines, primary respiratory epithelial cells cultured at an air–liquid interface, stem/progenitor cell-derived organoids, or tissue explants, have also been used for isolation of SARS-CoV-2, investigation of cytopathic effects, and pathogen–host interactions. Moreover, initial proof-of-concept studies for testing therapeutic agents can be performed with these tools, showing that animal-sparing cell culture methods could significantly reduce the need for animal models in the future, following the 3R principles of replace, reduce, and refine. So far, only few studies using animal-derived primary cells or tissues have been conducted in SARS-CoV-2 research, although natural infection has been shown to occur in several animal species. Therefore, the need for in-depth investigations on possible interspecies transmission routes and differences in susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 is urgent. This review gives an overview of studies employing alternative culture systems like primary cell cultures, tissue explants, or organoids for investigations of the pathophysiology and reverse zoonotic potential of SARS-CoV-2 in animals. In addition, future possibilities of SARS-CoV-2 research in animals, including previously neglected methods like the use of precision-cut lung slices, will be outlined.
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