Worldwide trends in mobile electrification, largely driven by the popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) will skyrocket demands for lithium‐ion battery (LIB) production. As such, up to four million ...metric tons of LIB waste from EV battery packs could be generated from 2015 to 2040. LIB recycling directly addresses concerns over long‐term economic strains due to the uneven geographic distribution of resources (especially for Co and Li) and environmental issues associated with both landfilling and raw material extraction. However, LIB recycling infrastructure has not been widely adopted, and current facilities are mostly focused on Co recovery for economic gains. This incentive will decline due to shifting market trends from LiCoO2 toward cobalt‐deficient and mixed‐metal cathodes (eg, LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2). Thus, this review covers recycling strategies to recover metals in mixed‐metal LIB cathodes and comingled scrap comprising different chemistries. As such, hydrometallurgical processes can meet this criterion, while also requiring a low environmental footprint and energy consumption compared to pyrometallurgy. Following pretreatment to separate the cathode from other battery components, the active material is dissolved entirely by reductive acid leaching. A complex leachate is generated, comprising cathode metals (Li+, Ni2+, Mn2+, and Co2+) and impurities (Fe3+, Al3+, and Cu2+) from the current collectors and battery casing, which can be separated and purified using a series of selective precipitation and/or solvent extraction steps. Alternatively, the cathode can be resynthesized directly from the leachate.
This work reviews lithium‐ion battery recycling developments in the literature in the context of meeting demands for the growing electric vehicle (EV) market. Practical challenges associated with the collection and disassembly of EV battery packs are also discussed. With respect to metal recovery, a particular emphasis is placed on hydrometallurgical processes, as it is robust in handling various metal compositions.
We present an apparatus for detection of cyclotron radiation yielding a frequency-based β± kinetic energy determination in the 5 keV to 2.1 MeV range, characteristic of nuclear β decays. The ...cyclotron frequency of the radiating β particles in a magnetic field is used to determine the β energy precisely. Our work establishes the foundation to apply the cyclotron radiation emission spectroscopy (CRES) technique, developed by the Project 8 Collaboration, far beyond the 18-keV tritium endpoint region. We report initial measurements of β–’s from 6He and β+’s from 19Ne decays to demonstrate the broadband response of our detection system and assess potential systematic uncertainties for β spectroscopy over the full (MeV) energy range. To our knowledge, this is the first direct observation of cyclotron radiation from individual highly relativistic β’s in a waveguide. Furthermore, this work establishes the application of CRES to a variety of nuclei, opening its reach to searches for new physics beyond the TeV scale via precision β-decay measurements.
Abstract Cyclotron radiation emission spectroscopy (CRES) is a modern technique for high-precision energy spectroscopy, in which the energy of a charged particle in a magnetic field is measured via ...the frequency of the emitted cyclotron radiation. The He6-CRES collaboration aims to use CRES to probe beyond the standard model physics at the TeV scale by performing high-resolution and low-background beta-decay spectroscopy of 6 He and 19 Ne . Having demonstrated the first observation of individual, high-energy (0.1–2.5 MeV) positrons and electrons via their cyclotron radiation, the experiment provides a novel window into the radiation of relativistic charged particles in a waveguide via the time-derivative (slope) of the cyclotron radiation frequency, d f c / d t . We show that analytic predictions for the total cyclotron radiation power emitted by a charged particle in circular and rectangular waveguides are approximately consistent with the Larmor formula, each scaling with the Lorentz factor of the underlying e ± as γ 4 . This hypothesis is corroborated with experimental CRES slope data.
The experimental and simulated switching behavior across the negative differential resistance (NDR) region of GaN/AlN double-barrier resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs) is presented. The shortest ...10%-90% experimental switching time was ~55 ps. The experimental results are also studied with P-SPICE circuit models, which show that the relatively low peak-to-valley current ratio (~1.5), relatively high specific contact resistance (≥1 × 10 -6 Ω-cm 2 ), and relatively large specific capacitance limit the switching time.
We have applied the near-IR Barnes-Evans realization of the Baade-Wesselink method as calibrated by Fouqué & Gieren (CITE) to five metal-poor Cepheids with periods between 13 and 17 days in the Small ...Magellanic Cloud as well as to a sample of 34 Galactic Cepheids to determine the effect of metallicity on the period-luminosity (P-L) relation. For ten of the Galactic Cepheids we present new accurate and well sampled radial-velocity curves. The Baade-Wesselink analysis provides accurate individual distances and luminosities for the Cepheids in the two samples, allowing us to constrain directly, in a purely differential way, the metallicity effect on the Cepheid P-L relation. For the Galactic Cepheids we provide a new set of P-L relations which have zero-points in excellent agreement with astrometric and interferometric determinations. These relations can be used directly for the determination of distances to solar-metallicity samples of Cepheids in distant galaxies, circumventing any corrections for metallicity effects on the zero-point and slope of the P-L relation. We find evidence for both such metallicity effects in our data. Comparing our two samples of Cepheids at a mean period of about 15 days, we find a weak effect of metallicity on the luminosity similar to that adopted by the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale. The effect is smaller for the V band, where we find $\Delta M_V / \Delta \mbox{Fe/H}$ $= -0.21\pm0.19$, and larger for the Wesenheit index W, where we find $\Delta M_{\rm W} / \Delta \mbox{Fe/H}$ $= -0.29\pm0.19$. For the I and K bands we find $\Delta M_I / \Delta \mbox{Fe/H}$ $= -0.23\pm 0.19$ and $\Delta M_K / \Delta \mbox{Fe/H}$ $= -0.21\pm 0.19$, respectively. The error estimates are 1 σ statistical errors. It seems now well established that metal-poor Cepheids with periods longer than about 10 days are intrinsically fainter in all these bands than their metal-rich counterparts of identical period. Correcting the LMC distance estimate of Fouqué et al. (CITE) for this metallicity effect leads to a revised LMC distance modulus of $(m-M)_0 = 18.48\pm 0.07$, which is also in excellent agreement with the value of $(m-M)_0 = 18.50\pm 0.10$ adopted by the Key Project. From our SMC Cepheid distances we determine the SMC distance to be $18.88\pm0.13$ mag irrespective of metallicity.
The parameters for the newly discovered open cluster Alessi 95 are established on the basis of available photometric and spectroscopic data, in conjunction with new observations. Colour excesses for ...spectroscopically observed B- and A-type stars near SU Cas follow a reddening relation described by E(U−B)/E(B−V) = 0.83 + 0.02E(B−V), implying a value of R=A
V
/E(B−V) ≃ 2.8 for the associated dust. Alessi 95 has a mean reddening of E(B−V)(B0) = 0.35 ± 0.02 s.e., an intrinsic distance modulus of V
0−M
V
= 8.16 ± 0.04 s.e. (±0.21 s.d.), d= 429 ± 8 pc, and an estimated age of 108.2 yr from zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) fitting of available UBV, CCD BV, NOMAD, and Two Micron All Sky Survey JHK
s observations of cluster stars. SU Cas is a likely cluster member, with an inferred space reddening of E(B−V) = 0.33 ± 0.02 and a luminosity of 〈M
V
〉=−3.15 ± 0.07 s.e., consistent with overtone pulsation (P
FM= 2.75 d), as also implied by the Cepheid's light-curve parameters, rate of period increase and Hipparcos parallaxes for cluster stars. There is excellent agreement of the distance estimates for SU Cas inferred from cluster ZAMS fitting, its pulsation parallax derived from the infrared surface brightness technique and Hipparcos parallaxes, which all agree to within a few per cent.
Here, we report the first precise measurement of a β-recoil correlation from a radioactive noble gas (6He) confined via a magneto-optical trap. The measurement is motivated by the search for exotic ...tensor-type contributions to the charged weak current. Interpreted as tensor currents with right-handed neutrinos, the measurements yield |CT/CA|2 ≤ 0.022 (90% confidence limit, C.L.). On the other hand, for left-handed neutrinos the limits are 0.007 < CT/CA < 0.111 (90% C.L.). The sensitivity of the present measurement is mainly limited by experimental uncertainties in determining the time response properties and the distance between the atom cloud and the microchannel plate used for recoil ion detection.
The development of safe, inexpensive, and long service life stationary energy storage infrastructure is critical to support the decarbonization of the power and automotive sectors. While lithium-ion ...batteries are considered the industry standard of excellence for applications requiring high energy density, they may not be the best choice for all applications, particularly stationary energy storage. This study presents rechargeable Zn-ion batteries (ZIBs) as a promising technology primed for greater utilization in stationary applications. We consider the main benefits and challenges of ZIBs by comparing key characteristics such as cost, safety, environmental impact, and lifetime with pumped hydro, compressed air, lithium-ion, lead-acid, and redox-flow batteries. The low projected manufacturing costs, high safety, and excellent recyclability of ZIBs highlight the potential success of the technology. However, commercialization efforts are bottlenecked by active material dissolution, a lack of realistic performance demonstrations, and the need for manufacturing validation and cost analysis at the pilot scale. Considering recent advancements to lifetime and capacity of ZIBs, we propose a modified research approach including performance analysis of high-loading electrodes, in situ/operando characterization of reaction mechanisms, and standardized testing protocols and reporting to move beyond the benchtop battery and better facilitate ZIB commercialization.
Batteries play a critical role in supporting the rapid transition to a sustainable energy sector, a major effort in the current fight against climate change. Strategies to reduce carbon emissions from the energy sector involve an increased deployment of renewable energy production (solar and wind). However, the intermittent nature of renewables requires stationary energy storage systems capable of reliable energy dispatch at the grid level. Similar to the electrified mobility market, lithium-ion batteries have, as of now, been the most popular option for utility-scale energy storage installations. However, lithium may not be a one-size-fits-all solution to our growing need for stationary energy storage where cost, safety, and durability are more important metrics than the weight of the battery. Considering this along with the rising cost of raw materials, increasing frequency of supply chain disruptions, and growing demand for energy storage installations, it is important that we acknowledge the diversity of technologies that may be better suited for stationary applications. This work presents rechargeable zinc-ion batteries as a promising alternative to lithium, one that is particularly well equipped for stationary applications.
In this paper, we contextualize the advantages and challenges of zinc-ion batteries within the technology alternatives landscape of commercially available battery chemistries and other stationary energy storage systems (e.g., pumped hydro, compressed air, and flywheels). Specifically, we compare application-relevant metrics and properties valuable for scalable deployment of zinc-ion batteries. Metrics including cost (materials, manufacturing, and maintenance), safety, and recycling feasibility are discussed in detail. We further provide insight into the challenges of industrially ready zinc-ion batteries, highlighting a roadmap of actionable developments for future researchers to push zinc-ion batteries toward commercial deployment.
This paper provides insight into the landscape of stationary energy storage technologies from both a scientific and commercial perspective, highlighting the important advantages and challenges of zinc-ion batteries as an alternative to conventional lithium-ion. This paper is a “call to action” for the zinc-ion battery community to adjust focus toward figures of merit relevant to stationary applications, with guidance for actionable developments that will be essential to see zinc-ion energy storage become the backbone of stationary applications in the future.
Summary Introduction For children with VUR the grade of vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) remains one of the most predictive factors relative to outcome. However, the subjective nature of the currently ...accepted international reflux grading system (IRGS) leads to inter-observer variation. The potential of a direct measurement of the distal ureter on the voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) normalized to the L1-L3 vertebral body distance (ureteral diameter ratio – UDR) to augment the ability of IRGS to predict the ultimate clinical outcome has previously been reported in a group of 79 children. Objective The goal of this current review was to expand the previous review and analysis in order to assess the predictive ability of the UDR with respect to earlier clinical outcome and to compare this ability to the grade of VUR while controlling for other variables. Study design This retrospective review of the VCUG of 157 children with primary VUR included 124 girls and 33 boys with a mean age of 2.7 years (7 days–13.5 years). In addition to the UDR, other variables that were analyzed included: age, gender, VUR grade, laterality, history of febrile urinary tract infection (UTI) or multiple UTIs prior to diagnosis, and bladder-bowel dysfunction (BBD). Cox regression analysis was utilized and a generalized logit model for 2-year outcome was also fitted to compare the effect of UDR and VUR grade using Wald Chi-squared analysis. Results The 2-year outcome after the VCUG was defined as: persistent VUR (47%), spontaneous VUR resolution (15%), or operative intervention (38%). Reasons for operative intervention included: breakthrough UTI (1/3), decreased relative renal function associated with renal scarring (1/3), and failure to resolve, along with parental preference (1/3). Increasing UDR was significantly associated with increased grade and a decreased chance of spontaneous resolution. It was unlikely for a child with Grade 4, 3, or 2 VUR to have spontaneous resolution if their UDR was above 0.25, 0.3, or 0.35, respectively. In addition, higher grades of VUR, older age, and bilateral VUR were significantly associated with failure to spontaneously resolve VUR. As seen in Figure, children with grades 2 and 3 VUR less than 2 years of age had a better chance of spontaneous resolution with a larger UDR than children 2 years of age or older. When adjusting for age, grade, laterality and multiple UTIs as covariates, each unit increase of UDR of 0.1 was significantly associated with either persistent VUR (OR = 1.73, 95% CI = 1.02–2.95, P = 0.043) or the need for surgical intervention (OR = 2.40, 95% CI = 1.39–4.17, P = 0.002) compared to spontaneous resolution. When testing the effect of UDR and grade of reflux in the same model, UDR was noted to have a larger effect on predicting failure to spontaneously resolve VUR than grade (Wald Chi-Squared 13.6; P = 0.001 vs 3.62; P = 0.46, respectively). Discussion The UDR is a readily available objective measurement on the VCUG that has demonstrated ability to enhance the International Reflux Grading System. Limitations of the current review include operative intervention in 12% of the children for failure to improve or resolve VUR. This surgical intervention inhibits determination of spontaneous resolution rates. The findings in this study reflect those in a series of children from a single institution and, therefore, may be impacted by clinical practice bias and geographic variations. Subsequent multi-institutional studies could further define the potential of UDR as either an independent or additive predictive factor for grading VUR that will further permit individualized patient management. Conclusion In this single institution series, UDR was highly correlated with VUR grade; however, UDR proved more predictive of spontaneous resolution, persistence, or operative intervention than grade. Figure Two-year outcome for children <2 years of age and ≥2 years of age relative to UDR.
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